\5l 


PC-NRLF 


SB    311    232 


Making 


[f 


TUIP 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


••until  an  ii 


THE    MAKING  OF 
AN  AUTOMOBILIST 


By  H.  A.  GRANT,  M.  E. 


THE    AUTO-INSTRUCT 
PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

317  West  59th  St.,  New  York 


Copyright,  1906 
by  H.  A.  Grant 
I  Ki  Vt(f 

GIFT 


TL.ISI 

07 


FOREWORD. 

The  writer  feels  that  he  has  been  most  fortunate  in 
securing  articles  on  the  following  subjects  by  men; 
recognized  in  their  various  lines  of  manufacture  as 
being  the  greatest  American  authorities: — 

"AUTOMOBILE  MATERIAL  AND  CONSTRUC- 
TION." By  Jonathan  D.  Maxwell,  Vice  President  and 
Superintendent,  Maxwell-Briscoe  Motor  Co. 

"THE  COOLING  OF  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS." 
By  Frank  Briscoe,  President  Briscoe  Manufacturing 
Co. 

"TIRES  AND  TIRE  CONSTRUCTION."  By 
Horace  DeLisser,  President  Ajax  Standard  Rubber  Co. 

"THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  OILING  AN  AUTO- 
MOBILE." By  C.  W.  Kelsey. 


M808849 


TABLE  OP  CONTENTS. 
PART  I. 

INTRODUCTION 13 

CHAPTER    I.— TYPES    OF    ENGINES:    STEAM, 
ELECTRIC  AND  GASOLINE 17 

CHAPTER  II.— GASOLINE  MOTORS 20 

Explanation  of  Cycle;  The  Two  Cycle  Motor;  The 
Four  Cycle  Motor;  Cylinders;  Pistons;  Connecting 
Rods;  Crank  Shafts;  Valves  &  Valve  Mechanisms; 
Differentials;  Mufflers;  Muffler  Cut-Outs,  and 
Operation  of  Motor. 

CHAPTER  III.— CARBURATION 30 

Function  of  Carbureter;  Types  of  Carbureters  Sur- 
face Carbureter;  Constant  Level  or  Float-Feed  Car- 
bureter; Compensating  Carbureter,  and  Theory  of 
Carburation. 

CHAPTER  IV.— THE    COOLING    OF    GAS    EN- 
GINE CYLINDERS 34 

Air  Cooling ;  Water  Cooling ;  Pump  Circulation,  and 
Thermo-Syphon  Circulation. 

CHAPTER  V.— TRANSMISSIONS  AND 

CLUTCHES 38 

Sliding  Gears ;  Planetary  Gears ;  Function  of  Clutch  ; 
Disadvantages  of  Cone  Clutch,  and  Advantages  of 
Multiple  Disc. 

CHAPTER  VI.— DRIVING  MECHANISMS: 

BRAKES  AND  FRAMES 44 

Single  Chain;  Double  Chain;  Shaft  Drive;  Compen- 
sating Side-Thrust;  Universal  Joints;  Brakes; 
Brake  Lining;  Care  of  Brakes,  and  Frames. 


CHAPTER  VII.— LUBRICATION 50 

Theory  of  Lubrication;  Cylinder  Lubrication;  Oil- 
ing Devices,  and  Grease  Cups. 

CHAPTER  VIII.— IGNITION 53 

Principle  of  the  Jump  Spark;  Commutators;  Vary- 
ing the  Time  of  Ignition ;  Dry  Cells ;  Accumulators  ; 
Mechanical  Generators;  Spark  Plugs,  and  Spark 
Gaps. 

PART  II. 

CHAPTER  IX.— POWER  LOSSES i. .        67 

Losses  by  Poor  Compression 68 

Leaky  Valves ;  Hints  on  Grinding  Valves ;  Escap- 
ing Past  Piston  Rings,  and  Leaks  Around  Spark 
Plugs  and  Valve  Caps. 

Losses  by  Poor  Ignition 70 

Weak  Batteries ;  Wiring  in  Series ;  Wiring  in  Paral- 
lel ;  Loose  Connections ;  Corroded  Terminals  ; 
Grounding  or  Short  Circuiting;  Improperly  Ad- 
justed Vibrators,  and  Sooted  Spark  Plugs. 

Losses  by  Poor  Carburation 79 

Sticking  of  Float ;  Float  Too  Heavy ;  Water  in  Gaso- 
line; Loose  Connections  between  Carbureter  and 
Cylinder,  and  Clogged  Vaporizing  Nozzle. 

CHAPTER  X.— CAUSES    OF   KNOCKS   IN 

MOTORS 83 

Loose  Bearing  Knocks  and  Ignition  Knocks. 

CHAPTER  XL— ON  THE  ROAD 86 

Care  of  Tires,  Skidding,  and  Winter  Driving. 


CHAPTER  XII.— ANTI-FREEZING 

SOLUTIONS 91 

Calcium  Chloride;  Glycerine,  and  Wood  Alcohol. 
CHAPTER  XIII.— STORING    AND    HANDLING 

GASOLINE 93 

CHAPTER  XIV.— SUGGESTIONS 95 

CHAPTER  XV.— EQUIPMENT 99 

Tools;  Electrical  Accessories;  Tires,  and  Miscellan- 
eous. 

CHAPTER  XVI.— OPERATING  A  CAR 102 

Sliding  Gears;  Starting  the  Motor;  Shifting  to 
Second  Speed;  High  Speed;  Reversing;  Points  on 
Operating.  Planetary  Gears. 

CHAPTER  XVII 109 

Automobile  terms  and  their  equivalents  in  French, 
German  and  Spanish. 

CHAPTER  XVIII.— Automobile  Material  And  Con- 
struction. By  Jonathan  D.  Maxwell,  Vice-Presi- 
dent  and  Superintendent  Maxwell-Briscoe  Motor 

Co 112 

CHAPTER  XIX.— The  Cooling  of  Explosive  Motors. 
By  Frank  Briscoe,  President  Briscoe  Manufact- 
uring Co.  .  126 
CHAPTER  XX.— Tires  And  Tire  Construction.  By 
Horace  DeLisser,  President  Ajax  Standard  Rub- 
ber Co 136 

CHAPTER  XXI.— The  Importance     of     Oiling     an 
Automobile.  By  C.  W.  Kelsey.  139 


INTRODUCTON. 

Now  that  the  automobile  has  proved  its  worth  and 
has  demonstrated  that  it  can  be  relied  upon,  there  are 
thousands  of  business  men,  doctors,  contractors,  build- 
ers and  the  like,  who  are  considering  the  advisability 
of  using  it,  as  well  as  a  large  class,  who  intend  pur- 
chasing for  pleasure  only,  or  pleasure  and  business 
combined,  but  are  deterred  from  doing  so  by  a  lack  of 
knowledge  of  the  subject. 

An  automobile,  as  is  the  case  of  any  well  designed 
piece  of  machinery,  requires  intelligent  care,  and  the 
amount  of  work  and  enjoyment  that  can  be  gotten  out 
of  it  is  wholly  in  proportion  to  the  attention  that  it 
receives. 

A  locomotive  is  operated  by  a  trained  engineer, — 
one  who  knows  his  engine  down  to  the  smallest  detail. 
Yet  there  are  automobile  owners  who  run  high  pow- 
ered cars  comparatively  successfully,  but  who  do  not 
understand  the  first  principles  underlying  the  opera- 
tion of  their  engines.  They  make  the  occasional  nec- 
cessary  adjustments  by  blindly  following  the  instruct- 
ions sent  by  the  manufacturers  without  knowing  what 
they  are  doing  or  why  they  do  it. 

This  class  of  owners  do  not  get  the  full  pleasure 
from  their  car  as  they  are  afraid  always  lest  some  con- 
ditions arise  which  are  not  covered  by  the  instruction 
book. 


To  the  man  who  possesses  a  knowledge  of  his  car 
comes  the  full  enjoyment  of  motoring;  for  he  feels 
himself  master  of  the  situation  and  competent  to  make 
adjustments  and  ordinary  repairs,  whether  it  be  on  the 
road  or  in  the  garage. 

It  is  an  evident  fact  that  the  simpler  a  car  the  less 
there  is  to  give  trouble,  and  for  the  average  owner,  one 
who  does  not  care  to  go  to  the  expense  of  a  chauffeur, 
the  two-cylinder  horizontal  motor  located  under  hood 
has  many  points  of  advantage  over  the  four-cylinder 
vertical  type.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the  case  of 
cars  of  20  or  less  horse  power. 

In  locating  trouble,  the  process  is  largely  one  of 
elimination.  In  fact,  he  is  a  good  motorist  who  knows 
what  to  let  alone. 

It  is  the  intention,  in  this  booklet,  to  go  into  theory 
so  far  as  to  make  clear  the  principles  underlying  the 
operation  of  a  gasoline  motor.  The  rest  will  be  de- 
voted to  the  general  care  and  maintenance  of  an  auto- 
mobile, or,  in  other  words,  keeping  the  car  in  proper 
tune. 


PART  I. 


CHAPTER  I. 

TYPES  OF  AUTOMOBILE  ENGINES. 
Steam,  Electric  and  Gasoline. 

There  are  at  the  present  time  three  distinct  types  of 
engines  in  use  in  automobiles,  viz.,  gasoline,  steam, 
md  electric. 

A  steam  engine  uses  the  gasoline  as  a  fuel  only  to 
generate  steam.  The  hydro-carbon  motor,  more  com- 
monly known  as  a  gasoline  motor,  on  the  other  hand, 
uses  gasoline  directly  in  the  cylinder  and  depends  upon 
the  principle  that  air  and  gasoline  vapor  when  mixed 
in  the  right  proportions  form  an  explosive  mixture. 
The  expansion  of  the  mixture  when  ignited  in  the 
cylinder  develops  the  power  that  is  transmitted  to 
the  crank  shaft  and  thence  to  the  rear  wheels. 

It  is  evident  therefore  that  the  power  is  more  di- 
rectly applied  in  this  case  than  in  the  steam  engine, 
and  it  is  this  fact  that  has  led  largely  to  the  popularity 
of  the  hydro-carbon  engine. 

The  electric  motor,  although  suitable  for  cities,  is 
useless  for  touring,  relying  as  it  does  for  power  on 
storage  batteries.  Its  radius  is  limited  by  the  capacity 
of  the  storage  cells,  and  it  has  been  found  that  they 
cannot  be  relied  upon  for  more  than  forty-five  or 
fifty  miles  of  fairly  level  roads. 

The  time  then  taken  to  recharge  these  cells  is  so 

17 


great,  consuming  several  hours,  during  which  time  the 
car  remains  idle,  that  with  the  exception  of  local  use 
the  electric  vehicle  is  not  practical. 

The  steam  car,  while  possessing  a  lower  touring 
radius  than  the  gasoline  car,  has  more  to  recommend 
it  than  the  electric  vehicle.  However,  the  high  pres- 
sures that  must  be  carried  on  this  type,  together  with 
the  numerous  packings  and  gaskets  that  are  employed, 
keep  the  driver  of  this  kind  of  car  constantly  on  watch 
lest  some  packing  blow  out,  necessitating  a  roadside 
repair,  or  perhaps  the  service  of  some  farmer's  horse. 

It  must  be  remembered  with  reference  to  steam  that 
all  connections  between  the  boiler  or  the  generator  and 
the  engine  proper  must  be  steam  tight  at  a  pressure 
of  several  hundred  pounds.  Even  the  gasoline  tank 
and  all  of  its  connections  are  subject  to  a  very  high 
pressure,  while  with  a  gasoline  motor,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  is  no  pressure  exerted  on  any  of  the  con- 
nections other  than  atmospheric,  and  it  is  not  until  the 
gasoline  in  vapor  form  enters  the  cylinder  that  a  pres- 
sure above  atmosphere  is  reached. 

The  problem  of  water  supply  on  a  steam  driven  auto- 
mobile is  also  a  serious  one,  and,  as  the  tank 
must  be  refilled  about  every  thirty  miles,  the  driver 
is  constantly  on  the  lookout  for  water.  As  any  car 
will  average  fifteen  miles  per  hour  this  means  that 
water  must  be  taken  on  every  two  hours. 

Trouble  is  also  experienced  on  windy  days  by  the 
blowing  out  of  the  pilot  light. 


18 


The  cost  of  operating  a  steamer  is  greater  than  a 
gasoline  machine,  as  it  is  not  so  economical  in  the  use 
of  fuel. 

The  flash  steam  generator,  as  used  now  to  some  ex- 
tent, though  reducing  the  time  necessary  from  the 
moment  of  firing  until  enough  steam  has  been  gen- 
erated to  start  the  car  (about  seven  minutes),  cannot 
be  compared  in  simplicity  of  operation  and  economy  of 
time  to  the  operation  of  cranking;  this  being  all  that 
is  necessary  to  start  a  gasoline  car,  no  matter  how 
long  it  may  have  been  standing. 

These  points,  together  with  simplicity  of  construc- 
tion, have  made  the  gasoline  car  the  automobile  par 
excellence  for  general  touring. 


CHAPTER  II. 
GASOLINE  MOTORS. 

The  internal  combustion  motor  can  be  divided  into 
two  great  classes,  viz. :  The  two  and  the  four  cycle 
motor. 

The  former  type,  though  used  up  to  the  present  time 
largely  for  small  boats  and  launches,  has  not  gained 
much  popularity  among  automobile  builders,  and  it  is 
a  noticeable  fact  that  the  majority  of  motor  boats  now 
employ  the  four  cycle  type,  as  do  their  land  cousins, 
the  automobile. 

EXPLANATION  OF  CYCLE.  A  cycle  as  applied 
to  a  gasoline  motor  means  the  successive  series  of 
operations  in  the  cylinder  of  the  motor. 

TWO-CYCLE  MOTOR.  To  understand  this  clearly 
refer  to  Fig.  I. 

As  the  piston  P  moves  up,  the  volume  in  the  crank 
case  becomes  greater  with  a  corresponding  decrease 
in  pressure,  this  pressure  becoming  less  than  atmos- 
phere, 14.7  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  An  explosive  mixture 
of  gases  passes  through  port  A.  When  the  piston  has 
reached  its  outer  dead  center  the  gases  in  the  crank 
case  and  the  lower  part  of  the  cylinder  have  again 
reached  atmospheric  pressure.  Upon  the  descent  of 
piston  P  the  gases  in  the  crank  case  are  forced  through 
passage  B — B  into  the  upper  part  of  the  cylinder  and 

20 


are  compressed  into  a  small  volume  and  ignited  at  the 
proper  time.  The  burnt  gases  after  expansion,  being 
above  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  expel  themselves 


The  diagram  shows  a  typical 
two-cycle  motor  in  which 

C  ==  Cylinder. 

P  =  Piston. 

M  —  Connecting  rod. 

A  =  Inlet  port  to  crank  case. 

R  =  Crank  case. 

B — B'  =  Inlet  port  to  cylinder. 

K  =  Baffle  plate. 

E  =  Exhaust  port. 


through  port  E,  this  being  uncovered  by  the  down- 
ward movement  of  piston  P. 

The  baffle  plate  K  prevents  the  new  gases,  entering 
B — B'  by  deflecting  them  .upward,  from  mixing  with 
the  burnt  gases  being  expelled  at  E. 

It  is  then  seen  that  in  this  type  of  motor  the  pro- 
cesses of  expelling  the  burnt  gases  and  forcing  the  new 
charge  into  the  cylinder  are  performed  during  the  same 
downward  stroke,  the  exhaust  being  uncovered  first 
by  the  piston  and  allowing  the  greater  part  of  the  burnt 

21 


gas  to  escape  before  the  inlet  port  B — B'  is  uncovered, 
the  baffle  plate  preventing  the  incoming  charge  from 
flowing  out  of  the  exhaust  port. 

Hence  in  a  two-cycle  motor  one  impulse  is  received 
for  each  revolution  of  the  fly  wheel,  while  in  the  four- 
cycle type  two  revolutions  of  the  fly  wheel  are  needed 
for  each  power  stroke. 

It  would  seem  then  that  the  two-cycle  motor  should 
be  capable  of  higher  efficiency  than  the  four  cycle.  The 
reverse  is  true.  A  two-cycle  engine  operates  success- 
fully at  low  speeds,  and  at  such  will  show  a  higher 
efficiency  than  the  four-cycle  type,  but  on  high  speed, 
such  as  is  necessary  in  an  automobile  motor,  the  opera- 
tion of  charging,  compressing,  firing  and  exhausting 
cannot  properly  be  accomplished  during  one  revolu- 
tion. 

Owing  to  the  limited  use  of  the  two-cycle  motor  it 
will  not  be  considered  further. 

FOUR-CYCLE  MOTOR.  As  has  been  seen,  a 
motor  of  the  four-cycle  type  has  one  power  stroke  for 
each  two  revolutions  of  the  fly  wheel  or  one  impulse 
for  every  three  dead  strokes. 

The  successive  operations  are : — 

i — Charging  the  cylinder  with  an  explosive  mixture 
of  air  and  gasoline. 

2 — The  compressing  of  this  charge  from  14.7  Ibs. 
per  square  inch,  or  atmospheric  pressure,  to  about  70 
Ibs.  per  square  inch. 


22 


3 — The  firing  of  the  compressed  charge  by  an  elec- 
tric spark. 

4 — The  exhausting  of  the  dead  or  burnt  gases  to  per- 
mit recharging  with  fresh  mixture. 

This  completes  the  series  of  operations,  four  in  num- 
ber, and  constitutes  the  cycle. 

CYLINDERS.  Cylinders  are  made  usually  of  gray 
iron  castings,  the  jacket  and  cylinders  cast  in  one  piece. 
It  was  considered  good  practice  a  few  years  ago  to 
cast  the  cylinder  head  and  the  cylinder  separately,  the 
two  being  then  bolted  together  and  the  joint  made 
tight  by  asbestos  packing.  The  difficulty,  however,  in 
keeping  this  tight  and  the  possibility  of  blowing  out 
the  gasket,  necessitating  a  somewhat  lengthy  repair, 
has  brought  the  one  piece  casting  into  general  use. 

PISTONS.  Pistons  are  made  of  cast  iron  and  in 
automobile  construction  are  of  the  trunk  pattern. 

In  order  that  the  compressed  charge  of  gases  may 
not  leak  between  the  cylinder  and  the  piston,  the  pis- 


Diagram  of  piston  and  connecting  rod. 
23 


tons  are   fitted  with  rings,   usually  three   in   numbei 
These  piston  rings  fit  in  grooves  cut  into  the  piston, 
and  spring  against  the  walls  of  the  cylinder.     When 
properly  made  they  afford  a  gas  tight  joint. 

The  importance  of  having  perfect  rings  can  not  be 
overestimated,  since  if  there  is  a  leak  between  the  pis- 
ton and  cylinder  the  compression  will  escape  with  a 
corresponding  loss  in  power. 

CONNECTING  ROD.  The  connecting  rod  must 
be  of  sufficient  strength  to  withstand  the  pressure  as 
exerted  by  the  expanding  gases  on  the  piston.  At  nor- 
mal speed  the  connecting  rod  is  not  subjected  to  great 
strains,  but  under  load  the  strain  becomes  excessive, 
while  at  extremely  high  speeds  the  rods  are  subjected 
to  severe  shocks. 

CRANK  SHAFT.  The  crank  shaft  is  perhaps  one 
of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  gasoline  motor.  It 
is  subject  not  only  to  the  thrust  due  to  the  explosion 
in  the  cylinder  but  must  withstand  the  momemtum  of 
the  piston  and  the  fly  wheel.  Crank  shafts  are  made 
of  special  steel  and  drop  forged. 

TYPICAL  CRANK  SHAFTS. 


Single  cylinder. 


Double  cylinder. 


Four  cylinder. 


VALVE  AND  VALVE 
MECHANISM.  Diagram 
of  poppet  valve  and  seat. 


Valves  are  made  of  cast  iron  or  steel  and  are 
mounted  on  a  steel  stem.  In  order  that  they  shall  open 
and  close  correctly,  a  device  is  used  known  as  the  time 
gear.  Upon  a  secondary  shaft  are  located  the  cams 
that  open  the  valves  at  the  proper  time,  a  spring  re- 

25 


turning  the  valves  to  their  seats.  Since  a  valve  must 
open  once  in  two  revolutions,  the  secondary  shaft  must 
revolve  through  180  degrees  while  the  crank  shaft 
turns  through  360  degrees.  The  secondary  shaft  is 
known  as  the  half  time  shaft. 

It  is  of  importance  that  the  timing  gears,  cams,  etc., 
shall  be  inclosed,  preferably  in  the  crank  case,  for  in 
this  position  they  receive  lubrication  from  the  splash 
of  the  cranks. 


Diagram  showing  correct 
valve  timing. 


While  it  would  seem  that  the  opening  and  closing  of 
valves  should  be  at  dead  centres,  yet  in  practice  this  is 
not  the  case,  for  it  is  necessary,  in  order  that  the  fresh 
charge  be  not  diluted  by  the  dead  gases,  to  rid  the 
cylinders  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  products  of  com- 
bustion from  the  previous  charge.  It  is  best  accom- 
plished by  opening  the  exhaust  valve  while  the  gases 
are  still  under  considerable  pressure. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  with  an  engine  run- 


ning  at  1500  R.  P.  M.  the  valves  will  close  later  on  pis- 
ton stroke  than  when  turning  300  to  600  R.  P.  M.  This 

is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  takes  the  spring  an  appreciable 
length  of  time  to  close  the  valves,  and  at  high  speed 
the  valve  will  lag  behind  its  correct  closing  time  in  ref- 
erence to  piston  travel. 

DIFFERENTIAL.  The  object  of  the  differential 
or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  equalizing  gear,  is  to 
permit  one  wheel  to  travel  over  a  greater  distance  than 
the  other.  In  turning  a  corner,  the  outer  wheel  must 
necessarily  turn  faster  than  the  inner.  Hence,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  two  cannot  be  connected  by  a  rigid  axle. 

In  shaft  and  single  chain-driven  cars,  the  differential 
is  placed  on  the  rear  axle,  and  in  the  double  side  chain, 
the  equalizing  gear  is  located  on  the  counter  shaft. 

Both  spur  and  bevel  gear  differentials  are  used,  the 
former  being  the  more  popular. 

MUFFLERS.  The  exhaust  gases  being  released  at 
a  pressure  considerably  above  atmospheric  must  be 
properly  muffled  if  the  engine  is  to  be  at  all  quiet  in 
operation.  The  usual  method  of  muffling  is  to  allow 
the  gases  to  expand  in  the  muffler  through  a  series  of 
compartments,  the  charge  finally  escaping  at  a  pres- 
sure slightly  above  atmospheric  and  with  little  or  no 
noise. 

MUFFLER  CUT-OUTS.  Some  cars  are  fitted 
with  a  device  whereby  the  gases  are  exhausted  directly 
into  the  air  without  passing  through  the  muffler.  This 
is  known  as  a  muffler  cut-out  and  effects  a  slight  sav- 

27 


ing  in  power  by  eliminating  back  pressure  on  the 
motor. 

However,  as  they  are  exceedingly  noisy  and  make 
an  automobile  a  nuisance  on  a  public  highway,  they  are 
not  to  be  advised. 

OPERATION  OF  MOTOR.  The  following  dia- 
gram shows  the  position  of  the  piston  in  a  cylinder 
at  the  beginning  of  each  stroke. 


Referring  to  Fig.  6 : — 

The  process  of  charging  consists  in  rilling  the  cylin- 
der with  an  explosive  mixture  of  air  and  gas.  Assume 
that  a  pressure  of  one  atmosphere  exists  in  space  be- 
tween the  cylinder  head  and  the  top  of  the  piston  (i). 
As  the  piston  moves  down  the  volume  above  men- 
tioned increases  with  a  consequent  decrease  in  pres- 
sure. A  valve  I  being  open  penmits  a  mixture  of  air 


and  gasoline  vapor  to  be  drawn  in.  This  valve  closes 
when  the  piston  has  reached  its  inner  dead  center  as 
shown  in  2. 

The  upward  movement  of  the  piston  compresses  the 
charge;  that  is,  the  volume  decreasing,  the  pressure  or 
density  of  the  mixture  is  increased. 

When  the  piston  has  reached  this  position,  as  shown 
in  3,  the  charge  is  ignited,  the  expanding  gases  driv- 
ing the  piston  downward.  This  is  the  power  stroke. 

The  pressure  per  square  inch  on  the  piston  before 
ignition  is  approximately  70  Ibs.  Upon  explosion  the 
pressure  rises  to  several  hundred  Ibs.,  falling  as  the 
volume  increases.  4  shows  the  position  of  the  piston 
at  the  beginning  of  the  exhaust  stroke.  The  exhaust 
valve  E  opening  permits  the  dead  charge  to  escape 
during  the  upward  stroke  of  the  piston.  This  com- 
pletes the  cycle.  The  next  operation  is  that  of  charg- 
ing the  cylinder  with  a  fresh  mixture  as  shown  in  i. 

For  simplicity  it  has  been  assumed  that  all  valves 
open  and  close  at  dead  centres. 

Experience  has  proved  that  owing  to  the  inertia 
of  gases  at  high  speeds  certain  modifications  of  the 
above  valve  setting  are  advisable.  (See  Fig.  5.) 


29 


CHAPTER  III. 
CARBURATION. 

As  has  been  seen,  a  gasoline  engine  depends  on  the 
explosive  properties  of  a  mixture  of  gasoline  vapor  and 
air.  At  first  glance  it  might  appear  that  the  proper 
proportioning  of  the  two  wouludl  be  a  comparatively 
simple  matter.  If  an  engine  ran  always  under  the 
same  conditions,  viz.,  at  constant  speed  and  under 
constant  load,  thereby  necessitating  no  throttling  of 
the  mixture,  the  problem  would  be  comparatively  sim- 
ple. However,  in  actual  practice  the  reverse  of  these 
conditions  is  true,  as  will  be  seen  later. 

FUNCTION  OF  CARBURETER.  The  function 
of  the  carbureter  is  to  mix  in  fixed  and  unvarying  pro- 
portions such  weights  of  gasoline  and  air  that,  when 
compressed  in  the  cylinder,  will  result  in  a  mixture 
that  will  be  highly  explosive. 

TYPES  OF  CARBURETERS.  There  are  three 
general  types  of  carbureters,  viz.,  Surface,  Constant 
Level  or  Float  Feed,  and  Compensating. 

SURFACE  CARBURETERS.  Of  the  various 
forms  of  carbureters,  the  surface  type  is  the  simplest. 
However,  it  so  imperfectly  fulfilled  the  conditions  im- 
posed upon  it  that  it  has  been  discarded  for  the  more 
modern  and  efficient  types. 


DIAGRAM  OF  THE  SURFACE  '  CARBURETER. 

The  accompanying  dia- 
gram shows  the  action  of 
the  surface  carbureter. 
A=gasoline  tank. 
P— pipe    debouching    into 

fuel. 

H=pipe    leading    to    cyl- 
inder. 

A  pipe  P  debouches  into  a  tank  of  gasoline.  The 
suction  due  to  the  motor  creates  a  partial  vacuum  in 
the  air  chamber. 

This  becoming  less  than  atmospheric  pressure  air 
is  drawn  through  pipe  P  and  passes  up  through  the 
gasoline.  The  result  is  a  fully  charged  but  far  from 
homogeneous  mixture.  The  actions  at  various  motor 
speeds  in  this  type  are  also  not  reliable. 

FLOAT  FEED  CARBURETER.  To  overcome 
these  troubles,  the  constant  level  or  float  carbureter 
was  designed  in  which 
L=float. 

S^valve  spindle. 
N=valve. 
G=gasoline  feed. 
V=vaporizing  nozzle. 
C— float  chamber.  * 

Q=mixing  chamber. 
X=air  supply. 
Y=pipe  leading  to  cylin- 
der. 

H=needle  valve  control- 
ling flow  of  fuel  to  va- 
porizing nozzle. 


COMPENSATING  CARBURETER.  The  com- 
pensating carbureter  is  fitted  with  an  auxiliary  air 
valve  admitting  more  air  as  the  engine  speed  increases, 
thus  compensating  for  the  increased  richness  of  mix- 
ture. 

THEORY  OF  CARBURATION.  The  problem  in 
carburation  is  to  feed  at  all  engine  speeds  and  at  all 
points  of  throttle  opening  an  even  and  uniform  mix- 
ture to  the  cylinders. 

In  the  surface  carbureter  a  fully  charged  mixture 
was  obtained,  but  it  was  in  no  sense  homogeneous 
since  with  a  pipe  debouching  into  gasoline  and  with 
air  sucked  through  it  the  resulting  mixture  contained  . 
drops  of  liquid.  These  either  condensed  on  the  walls 
of  the  supply  pipe  or,  entering  the  cylinder  as  drops 
and  not  as  vapor,  produced  a  slow  burning  mixture 
necessitating  a  well-advanced  spark,  which  put  a  back 
pressure  on  the  engine.  This  slow  burning  of  the 
charge  had  also  decided  heating  effect  on  the  cylin- 
der walls. 

The  spray  carbureter,  or  constant  level  type,  divides 
the  gasoline  into  an  infinite  number  of  drops,  thus  af- 
fording the  maximum  amount  of  surface  for  vaporiza- 
tion. If  a  single  drop  of  gasoline  is  placed  in  the  air 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  vaporization  will  not  be  as  rapid 
as  if  this  same  drop  were  divided  into  a  number  of 
infinitely  small  drops.  The  suction  draws  the  gaso- 
line from  the  nozzle  in  the  form  of  a  spray  or  mist, 
which  uniting  with  the  air  forms  a  gas  which  is  deliv- 


ered  to  the  cylinder  as  such,  thus  affording  to  the 
cylinder  a  uniform  mixture. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  if  air  and  gasoline 
are  mixed  by  weight  in  the  ratio  of  5  to  i,  the  result- 
ing gas  will,  when  ignited,  develop  a  maximum  of 
power.  Therefore,  a  carbureter,  to  be  absolutely  cor- 
rect, should  feed  a  mixture  approaching  the  limits 
above  given. 

The  weight  of  fuel  per  engine  stroke  is  dependent 
on  the  speed  of  the  motor.  That  is,  at  high  speed  the 
suction  increases  as  the  engine  speed  increases.  The 
rate  of  increase  is  greater  for  gasoline  than  it  is  for  air 
since  gasoline  will  continue  to  flow  after  suction  has 
ceased,  due  to  the  inertia  of  the  column  of  liquid  in 
the  vaporizing  nozzle.  The  result  is  that  a  fias  is 
produced  which  is  too  rich  at  high  speeds.  By  proper 
design  of  the  carbureter  this  can  be  overcome. 

In  order  that  the  mixture  shall  be  a  perfect  gas, 
it  has  been  found  advisable  to  heat  the  air  before  feed- 
ing it  to  the  carbureter. 

The  modern  carbureter  has,  however,  been  so  care- 
fully designed  and  so  thoroughly  meets  the  above 
named  conditions  that  when  properly  adjusted  it  is 
productive  of  but  little  trouble. 


33 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE  COOLING  OF  GAS  ENGINE  CYLINDERS. 

Upon  the  firing  of  a  charge,  the  cylinder,  could  it  be 
inspected,  would  be  seen  to  be  filled  with  a  sheet  of 
flame.  It  is  estimated  that  the  temperature  of  the  gases 
reaches  as  high  as  2500  to  3000  degrees  F.  Under 
such  intense  heat  lubrication  is  impossible.  Therefore 
some  means  must  be  provided  to  keep  the  cylinder 
walls  at  a  proper  working  temperature. 

Two  systems  are  employed  for  cooling  the  cylin- 
ders of  a  gasoline  motor : — Air,  or  direct,  cooling,  and 
water,  or  indirect,  cooling. 

AIR  COOLING.  The  air-cooled  motor,  though 
never  gaining  popularity  in  Europe,  is  used  to  a  lim- 
ited extent  in  this  country,  and  for  small  cylinders  up 
to  a  4-inch  diameter  has  been  fairly  successful.  Be- 
yond this  point,  however,  the  external  cooling  surface 
that  can  be  employed  will  decrease  as  the  number  of 
square  inches  of  heating  surface  is  increased,  or  in 
other  words,  the  cooling  surface  cannot  be  increased 
in  the  same  ratio  for  large  as  for  small  cylinders.  Also, 
the  range  in  variation  of  temperature  will  necessarily 
be  wider  for  air  than  for  water-cooled  motors. 

Water  has  about  eight  times  as  high  a  capacity  for 
Storing  heat  as  iron  for  equal  weights  of  each  and  for 
this  reason  the  temperature  cannot  be  controlled  so 

34 


perfectly  in  an  air-cooled  motor  as  in  one  cooled  by 
water.  The  result  is  that  the  cylinder  of  an  air-cooled 
motor  can  pass  readily  from  one  of  perfect  safety  to  a. 
seriously  overheated  condition,  with  a  consequent 
damage  to  valves,  and  even  cylinder  and  piston,  for  in 
this  connection  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  gas 
engine  operation,  roughly  speaking,  about  20%  only 
of  the  heat  units  are  utilized.  Of  the  remaining  80%, 
30%  are  carried  off  through  the  exhaust,  leaving  50% 
to  be  taken  care  of  by  the  cooling  system. 

Owing  to  these  difficulties,  cooling  a  cylinder  by 
circulating  water  around  it  has  come  into  general  use. 

WATER  COOLING.  It  is  evident  that  by  the 
proper  designing  of  a  cooler  or  radiator,  the  number 
of  square  inches  of  cooling  surface  as  compared  to 
the  number  of  square  inches  of  heated  cylinder  area 
can  be  so  proportioned  that  the  cylinder  can  never  at- 
tain dangerously  high  temperatures. 

It  is  a  mistaken  idea  that  the  cooler  the  water  the 
better  the  motor  will  work;  on  the  contrary,  experi- 
ments show  that  an  engine  will  operate  at  its  highest 
efficiency,  all  other  things  being  equal,  when  the 
jacketing  water  leaves  the  cylinder  at  about  210  de- 
grees Fahrenheit. 

In  order  that  the  water  may  circulate  around  the 
cylinder,  pass  into  the  radiator,  and  when  properly 
cooled  return  to  the  cylinder  jacket,  some  means  of 
circulation  must  be  provided. 

There  are  two  methods  in  use,  viz:  circulation  ef- 

35 


fected  by  a  pump,  and  natural  circulation  or  the 
thermo-siphon  system.  Both  are  efficient  and  largely 
used. 

There  are,  however,  objections  inherent  with  all 
pumps,  namely,  that  a  certain  amount  of  power  is 
absorbed  in  driving  the  pump.  The  most  serious  ob- 
jection to  them  is  that  a  pump  is  always  a  fruitful 
source  of  trouble  and  must  be  frequently  repacked  to 
keep  all  connections  water-tight. 

If,  during  a  run,  the  pump  springs  a  leak,  the  en- 
tire contents  of  the  radiator  may  escape  without  the 
operator  having  the  slightest  idea  that  everything  is 
not  as  it  should  be,  until  it  is  suddenly  brought  to  his 
attention  by  the  overheating  of  his  engine. 

Another  objection  which  can  be  cited  against  the 
pump  is  that  driven  frcxm  the  motor  shaft  it  pumps  in 
proportion  to  motor  speed  and  not  in  proportion  to 
the  temperature  of  water;  that  is,  on  a  long  hill  that 
can  be  negotiated  on  high  speed,  the  cylinders  are 
receiving  a  full  charge  of  gas,  and  therefore  a  maxi- 
mum amount  of  heat  must  be  taken  care  of  by  the 
cooling  system;  but  just  here  when  the  circulation  of 
the  water  should  be  the  strongest,  the  reverse  is  true, 
owing  to  the  reduced  speed  of  the  engine. 

On  the  other  hand,  on  the  level  when  the  motor  is 
speeded  up  and  the  car  is  travelling  at  a  high  rate  of 
speed,  the  pump  is  working  unnecessarily  hard,  as 
the  increased  speed  augments  the  cooling. 

36 


THERMO-SYPHON.  The  thermo-syphon  sys- 
tem depends  on  the  well-known  fact  that  cold  water, 
being  heavier  than  hot,  for  equal  volumes  will  dis- 
place heated  water,  causing  the  latter  to  rise. 

The  advantages  of  this  method  are  evident;  the  cir- 
culation depends  upon  the  temperature  and  is  inde- 
pendent of  motor  speed ;  that  is,  on  ascending  a  steep 
grade  with  full  throttle  and  engine  slowed  down  un- 
der load,  the  circulation  of  the  water  is  correspond- 
ingly increased,  while  on  the  level  running  with  closed 
throttle,  the  circulation  is  reduced.  The  result  of  this 
is  that  the  cylinders  are  kept  at  an  almost  constant 
working  temperature  with  a  very  slight  variance. 

The  strongest  point 
perhaps  in  favor  of  this 
system  is  its  simplicity 
and  its  reliability.  As 
it  has  no  moving  part 
there  is  no  possibility 
of  failure,  and  if  ordin- 
ary care  is  taken  to  see 
that  the  radiator  is  sup- 
plied with  clean  water 
so  that  no  stoppages,  due 
to  dirt  and  outside  mat- 
ter getting  into  the 
pipes,  can  occur,  circu- 
lation will  be  efficient  and  positive  in  action. 


37 


CHAPTER  V. 
TRANSMISSIONS  AND  CLUTCHES. 

It  must  be  remembered  in  connection  with  a  gaso- 
line motor  that  the  power  developed  by  th.e  explosions 
in  the  cylinder  is  stored  as  energy  in  the  fly  wheel 
and  that  full  power  is  obtained  only  when  the  fly  wheel 
is  revolving  at  its  rated  speed  under  load.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, an  engine  developes  full  power  at,  say,  1000 
revolutions  per  minute  and  in  ascending  a  grade  is 
slowed  down  to  400  revolutions  per  minute,  the  motor 
will  not  then  be  developing  nearly  its  full  power. 
It  is  evident  also  that  it  is  just  here  where  full  power 
is  needed. 

In  order,  therefore,  that  the  engine  shall  turn  up  to 
approximately  its  normal  speed  a  change  speed  gear- 
ing must  be  interposed  between  the  engine  proper  and 
the  rear  wheels. 

There  are  four  distinct  types  of  transmission: — 

Sliding  gears,  Planetary  gears,  Individual  clutch  and 
Friction  drive. 

The  first  two  systems  are  in  general  use,  the  individ- 
ual clutch  being  used  only  to  a  limited  extent  and  the 
friction  drive  has  but  one  or  two  advocates. 

SLIDING  GEARS.  On  all  large  cars,  the  sliding 
gear  transmission  has  come  into  use  to  the  practical 
exclusion  of  other  types.  It  consists  essentially  of  a 

38 


clutch,  a  secondary  shaft  B,  and  a  square  shaft  C,  on 
which  slides  the  gears  D  and  S.  When  the  clutch  is 
released,  the  engine  is  free  to  revolve,  but  no  power  is 
transmitted  to  the  shaft  C.  When  the  clutch  is  en- 
gaged, gear  F  drives  the  secondary  shaft  B  through 
gear  G. 

On  high  speed,  the  gear  D  is  removed  forward  un- 
til ringers  in  D  engage  corresponding  members  in  F, 
the  shaft  E.  and  C.  revolving  as  a  unit.  On  second 
speed,  D  is  moved  until  gear  S  engages  S'.  The  shafts 
C  and  B  now  revolve  at  a  different  rate  of  speed,  shaft 
C  revolving  at  a  lower  rate  than  B. 

39 


On  low  speed,  the  ratio  is  still  greater,  C  turning 
much  more  slowly  than  B.  Reverse  speed  is  produced 
by  an  idler  in  mesh  with  N,  for  when  D  is  moved  still 
further  back,  R  meshes  with  this  idler,  thus  changing 
the  direction  of  shaft  C. 

All  sliding  gear  transmissions  should  be  provided 
with  a  device  preventing  the  shifting  of  gears  with  the 
clutch  engaged.  This  is  important,  for,  otherwise, 
should  an  attempt  be  made  to  shift  gears  with  the 
clutch  engaged  it  would  probably  result  in  stripping 
the  gear  teeth.  With  the  locking  device  before  men- 
tioned this  is  an  impossibility. 

PLANETARY  GEARS.  Planetary  transmission  is 
especially  suited  to  small  cars  of  ample  power.  It  is 
extremely  simple  in  operation  and  for  this  reason  is 
preferred  by  women  who  drive  their  own  cars.  It  is 
essential,  however,  that  for  this  type  to  be  efficient 
the  gears  be  encased  and  run  in  a  bath  of  oil.  The 
majority  of  runabouts  do  not  meet  the  above  import- 
ant point. 

Now  that  the  automobile  has  passed  the  experi- 
mental state,  as  much  should  be  expected  of  a  small 
as  of  a  large  car  in  point  of  durability  and  efficiency. 
In  fact,  it  should  seldom  be  necessary  in  a  good  run- 
about under  ordinary  road  conditions  to  resort  to  low 
speed,  and  in  high  speed  the  planetary  transmission  is 
fully  as  efficient  as  sliding  gears. 

FUNCTION  OF  CLUTCH.  In  starting  as  well  as 
in  stopping,  it  is  necessary  that  some  device  be  used 

40 


to  disconnect  the  motor  from  the  transmission. 
is  the  function  of  the  clutch. 


This 


Cone  Clutch. 


Figure     n     shows    the 
cone  clutch,  in  which 

F  =  fly  wheel. 
G  =  cone  clutch. 
S  =  spring. 


When  the  cone  is  let  into  its  seat  on  the  fly  wheel 
and  held  in  engagement  by  a  powerful  spring,  the 
friction  between  F  and  G  is  sufficient  to  cause  G  to 
revolve  as  a  unit  with  F. 

DISADVANTAGES  OF  CONE  CLUTCH.  In 
this  and  similar  types  of  clutches  the  wear  between 
the  two  members  F  and  G  is  excessive  and  the  clutch 
requires  constant  adjustment. 

In  crowded  traffic  and  when  slipping  the  clutch,  as 
in  starting,  the  absence  of  any  proper  means  of  lubrica- 
tion causes  the  clutch  to  become  too  "fierce,"  as  it  is 
called,  or,  in  other  words,  the  car  is  too  jerky  in  mo- 
tion, instead  of  the  clutch  taking  hold  gradually  and 
picking  up  the  load. 


Owing   to   these    disadvantages,    a    type    of    clutch 
known  as  the  multiple  disc  is  fast  gaining  favor. 

Multiple  Disc  Clutch. 


Let  E  be  the  crank  shaft  and  arms  A  and  C  be  inte- 
gral with  it.  A  number  of  steel  discs  P,  P',  P",  etc., 
are  fastened  on  their  periphery,  as  shown  in  Fig.  12. 

Upon  a  sleeve  T  mounted  on  shaft  are  a  correspond- 
ing number  of  small  discs  fastened  at  their  centres. 

If  the  spring  S  is  engaged  the  discs  are  pressed  to- 
gether, the  result  being  that  shafts  T  and  E  are  driven 
as  a  unit.  Upon  disengaging  the  spring  S,  the  shaft 
E  or  motor  shaft  revolves ;  but  since  no  friction  occurs 
then  between  plates  P,  P',  P"  and  Q,  Q'  and  Q",  the 
secondary  shaft  T  is  stationary. 

42 


ADVANTAGES   OF   MULTIPLE   DISC   TYPE. 

The  advantages  of  this  type  are  that 

(1)  Owing  to  its  compactness  it  can  be  encased. 

(2)  All  moving  parts  are  of  steel  and  their  discs 
running  in  oil  are  not  subjected  to  any  appreciable 
wear  as  the  working  load  per  square  inch  is  no  greater 
than  that  of  any  other  wearing  part  of  the  motor. 

(3)  Owing  to  its  perfect  lubrication  the  clutch  can 
be  slipped  without  injurious  effects. 

As  the  steel  plates  run  in  a  bath  of  oil,  it  is  evident 
that  each  time  the  clutch  is  released,  the  plates  sep- 
arate and  oil  works  thoroughly  between  them. 

When  the  clutch  is  engaged  the  oil  is  forced  out, 
but  before  the  discs  seize,  a  certain  slip,  due  to  this  oil 
filament,  will  occur.  The  advantages  of  this  one  point 
cannot  be  overestimated,  since  this  slipping  effect  re- 
lieves the  transmission  and  the  rear  axle  of  strains  due 
to  too  sudden  an  engagement  of  the  clutch  and  not 
only  improves  the  riding  qualities  of  the  car  but  adds 
to  the  life  of  the  tires  as  well  as  to  the  car  itself. 


43 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DRIVING  MECHANISM,  BRAKES 
AND  FRAMES. 

The  earlier  carriages  were  driven  by  either  single 
or  double  chains.  The  shaft  drive  has,  however, 
gained  in  popularity  to  such  an  extent  that  the  future 
will  probably  see  it  used  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other 
methods. 

In  order  that  any  piece  of  mechanism  shall  be  effi- 
cient, it  is  necessary  that  suitable  means  of  lubrication 
be  employed.  It  is  obvious  that  in  the  case  of  chain 
driven  cars  there  is  no  satisfactory  means  of  lubrica- 
tion. 

A  chain  is  exposed  to  all  the  dust  and  dirt  of  the 
road  and  becomes  so  filthy  that  it  frequently  has  to  be 
removed  and  cleaned.  It  is  subjected  to  heavy  wear 
due  to  the  grit  that  it  picks  up,  and  this  necessitates 
frequent  adjustment. 

With  regard  to  the  efficiency  of  the  two  methods 
there  is  little  difference.  Were  it  possible  to  operate 
a  car  and  keep  the  chain  thoroughly  lubricated  and 
clean,  the  wear  and  consequent  friction  would  be  re- 
duced, making  this  method  compare  favorably  with  the 
shaft  driven  car;  but  in  practice,  experiment  shows  a 
slight  gain  in  favor  of  the  gear  drive. 

44 


SINGLE  CHAIN  DRIVE.  The  single  chain  is 
used  on  a  number  of  runabouts  and  on  a  few  larger 
cars. 


The  principle  advantage  that  can  be  urged  is  its 
cheapness.  However,  due  to  its  length,  constant 
stretching,  and  inefficient  means  of  lubrication,  the 
single  chain  drive  is  rapidly  being  displaced  by  the 
shaft  drive. 

DOUBLE  CHAIN  DRIVE.  While  the  disadvan- 
tages inherent  with  single  chains  are  present  in  the 
side  chain  drive,  yet,  as  the  latter  are  comparatively 
short  and  accessible  for  cleaning,  they  afford  in  heavy 
cars  a  satisfactory  means  of  transmitting  power. 

SHAFT  DRIVE.  Because  of  its  perfect  means  of 
lubrication  the  shaft  drive  has  come  into  general  use. 
Every  moving  part  is  encased  and  runs  in  grease,  and 
no  matter  how  muddy  or  dusty  the  roads  it  is  impos- 
sible for  any  of  the  grit  or  dirt  to  get  into  the  gears 
themselves. 

45 


REAR  AXLE,  EMPLOYING  SHAFT  DRIVE,  SHOWING  OIL  TIGHT 
CONSTRUCTION 

Owing  to  this  construction,  the  shaft  drive  requires 
little  or  no  attention. 

COMPENSATING  SIDE}  THRUST.  As  in  the 
case  of  any  bevel  gear  construction,  some  means  must 
be  provided  for  taking  the  side  thrust  from  the  driving 
pinion. 

P  =  Driving  pinion. 
S  and  K  =  Housing. 
B  =  Steel  shaft. 
M  —  Bearing. 
G=  Bevel  gear. 

C  and  D  =  Shaft  to  which 
rear  wheels  are  fastened. 
The  power  from  the  engine  is  transmitted  by  shaft 
B  and  from  pinion  P  to  bevel  gear  G;  there  is  then  a 
thrust  against  G  as  shown  by  arrow. 


To  overcome  this  refer  to  Fig.  16: — 

A  blank  rol- 
ler L  of  same 
size    as    drive 
pinion  P  is  fit- 
ted against  the 
bevel   gear   G. 
This   roller   is 
held  against  G 
by  bearing  N. 
Therefore  any 
thrust  as  shown  by  arrow  is  taken  up  by  the  roller 
and  does  not  permit  the  gear  G  to  get  out  of  alignment. 
This  device,  though  simple,  is  a  most  efficient  means 
of  compensating  the  side  thrust. 

UNIVERSAL  JOINTS.     In  order  that  the  power 
may  be  transmitted  at  an  angle  and  also  to  compensate 

for  inequalities  of  the 
road,  two  universal  joints 
should  be  employed  on  a 
shaft  driven  car. 

These  joints  should  be 
provided  with  ample 
space  for  holding  grease 
and  oil. 

BRAKES.     There  are  two  general  classes  of  brakes. 
I — Hub  or  Drum  brakes. 
2 — Shoe  brakes. 

.The  first  class  is  used  to  the  exclusion  of  the  latter 

47 


type,  inasmuch  as  any  pressure  on  pneumatic  tires 
such  as  is  applied  to  the  iron  shoe  of  a  carriage,  would 
wear  it  through. 

The  majority  of  large  cars  are  fitted  with  two  sets 
of  brakes ;  one  set  operating  on  steel  drums  on  the  rear 
wheels,  and  the  other  on  a  drum  on  the  transmission. 


A  =  Drum. 

B  =3  Brake  band  lining. 

C  =  Band. 

L  ==  Bell  Crank  for  tight- 
ening and  loosening 
band  on  drum. 


BRAKE  LINING.  As  is  evident,  an  exceedingly 
tough  material  must  be  employed  for  lining  brake 
bands.  Leather  or  fibre  is  must  commonly  used. 

CARE  OF  BRAKES.  The  drums  and  bands  should 
be  kept  free  of  oil  or  grease  as  any  lubrication  here 
defeats  their  very  purpose.  They  should  be  so  ad- 
justed that  the  band  exerts  no  drag  when  properly  re- 
leased and  yet  should  be  capable  of  locking  the  wheels 
when  full  braking  effort  is  applied. 

Brakes  should  be  frequently  examined  and  relined 

48 


when  necessary,  care  being  taken  to  countersink  the 
rivets. 

FRAMES.  The  pressed  steel  frarne,  owing  to  its 
combination  of  strength  and  lightness,  is  used  on  the 
majority  of  large  cars.  On  some  runabouts  the 
armored  wood  frame  is  still  employed  and  on  a  few  the 
tubular  construction.  The  pressed  steel  frame  is  now 
being  adopted  for  the  higher  class  of  runabouts  and 
the  future  will  see  this  used  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
material  in  all  types  of  automobile  frames. 


49 


CHAPTER  VII. 
LUBRICATION. 

The  proper  means  of  lubricating  the  moving  parts  of 
a  motor  car  is  a  subject  that  has  been  given  careful 
thought  by  designers  and  the  instructions  sent  out 
with  each  car  should  be  strictly  followed. 

THEORY  OF  LUBRICATION.  It  is  a  mistaken 
idea  that  any  piece  of  metal,  no  matter  how  carefully 
finished,  has  a  perfectly  smooth  surface;  were  this  ex- 
amined under  a  microscope,  it  would  be  seen  to  be 
irregular. 

If  two  pieces  of  metal  are  carefully  machined  and 
ground  and  are  then  rubbed  together  under  pressure, 
the  breaking  off  or  grinding  of  these  irregularities  in 
the  surface  of  the  plates  generates  heat. 

When  this  occurs  between  a  shaft  and  its  bearing, 
the  result  is  a  seizure  between  the  two,  stopping  the 
car  until  the  bearing  has  cooled. 

The  object  of  lubrication  is  to  prevent  this  friction 
and  consequent  wear  by  interposing  an  oil  filament  be- 
tween the  shaft  and  the  bearing. 

The  bearing  must  be  so  designed  that  the  pressure 
per  square  inch  of  bearing  surface  does  not  exceed  cer- 
tain limits.  Then  there  will  exist  between  the  shaft 
and  bearing  an  oil  filament  that  will  prevent  the  metal 
surfaces  from  coming  in  contact.  If  the  pressure  per 

So 


square  inch  is  too  great,  the  oil  will  be  forced  out  with 
a  consequent  damage  to  bearings.. 

THE  LUBRICATION  OF  A  GASOLINE  EN- 
GINE CYLINDER.  A  specially  prepared  mineral  oil 
of  high  fire  test  is  necessary  for  the  proper  lubrication 
of  the  cylinder.  Too  much  importance  cannot  be 
placed  on  this  point  as  an  engine  can  readily  be  ruined 
by  employing  an  unsuitable  oil. 

Since  the  temperature  in  the  cylinder  will  average 
about  1000°  Fahrenheit,  it  is  necessary  that  an  oil  be 
used  that  does  not  carbonize.  It  is  a  "penny  wise  and 
pound  foolish"  policy  to  economize  in  the  quality  of 
cylinder  oil.  The  best  is  none  too  good. 

OILING  DEVICES.  There  are  three  means  of 
supplying  oil  to  the  moving  parts  of  an  engine,  viz., 
by  gravity  feed,  compression  and  pump  driven  oilers. 

The  gravity  oiler  though  simple  is  not  altogether 
reliable  since  the  viscosity  of  the  oil  is  dependent  on  its 
temperature  and  this  necessitates  constant  adjusting 
of  the  flow  as  atmospheric  conditions  change. 

The  compression  oiler  and  pump  driven  lubricator 
afford  a  satisfactory  means  for  supplying  oil  to  the 
various  parts  of  a  car.  For  vertical  engines,  oil  fed 
to  the  crank  case  and  then  splashed  by  the  cranks 
affords  a  means  of  lubricating  the  cylinders.  For  the 
opposed  horizontal  engine,  a  positive  feed  is  preferable 
to  splash  lubrication,  as  oil  is  fed  in  proportion  to  the 
motor  speed  and  each  cylinder  receives  at  all  times  its 
proper  amount  of  oil.  With  the  splash  system,  it  is  a 


case  of  either  a  feast  or  a  famine.    Trouble  from  sooted 
plugs  will  also  be  experienced  with  this  method. 

GREASE  CUPS.  These  are  used  when  a  heavier 
lubricant  than  oil  is  necessary  and  also  when  the  loca- 
tion is  such  that  it  is  impossible  to  feed  from  the  me- 
chanical oiler. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
IGNITION. 

As  already  shown,  a  charge  of  air  and  gasoline  in 
gaseous  form  is  drawn  in  and  compressed  in  the  cylin- 
der and  at  the  proper  time  ignited. 

What  means  then  are  used   in   firing  the  charge? 

In  the  early  engines  various  systems  were  employed, 
among  which  can  be  cited  the  open  flame,  the  hot  head, 
and  the  incandescent  tube.  The  latter  system  gained 
some  popularity  for  automobiles,  but,  owing  to  inability 
to  time  it  properly,  it  has  given  way  to  the  present 
ignition  by  the  electric  spark. 

It  is  a  fact  that  fully  three-quarters  of  the  trouble 
that  the  average  motorist  experiences  is  due  to  a  lack 
of  knowledge  of  the  ignition  system  on  his  car.  The 
power  developed  by  an  explosive  motor  is  largely  de- 
pendent on  the  intensity  of  the  spark  and  many  an  au- 
tomobile has  been  condemned  for  lack  of  power  and 
sent  to  the  repair  man,  whereas,  had  the  operator  pos- 
sessed some  knowledge  of  the  principles  upon  which 
ignition  depended,  he  would  have  himself  been  able 
to  make  the  comparatively  simple  adjustments  neces- 
sary to  restore  his  motor  to  full  power. 

At  the  present  time  two  general  systems  of  electric 
ignition  are  in  vogue,  the  make  and  break  or  primary 
igniter  and  the  jump  spark  or  high  tension  system, 

53 


This  latter  method  is  used  in  this  country  almost  to 
the  total  exclusion  of  the  other. 

PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  JUMP  SPARK.  It  must 
be  understood  that  an  electric  current  will  flow  only 
through  a  closed  conductor.  Referring  to  Fig.  i. 

A  represents  an  ordin- 
ary dry  cell.  The  two 
electrodes  are  connected 
by  a  wire  C  thus  afford- 
ing an  electrical  path  for 
the  current.  If,  however, 
the  wire  is  severed  the 
action  ceases. 

A  dry  cell  or  any  other 
form  of  electrical  energy 
does  not  generate  a  cur- 
rent, but  forms  a  differ- 
erence  of  pressure  between  the  two  electrodes  and 
the  flowing  of  this  current  is  an  effort  to  establish 
equilibrium  in  all  parts  of  the  closed  circuit. 

For  example,  if  two  jars  placed  on  a  table  are  filled 
with  water  to  different  heights  and  are  connected  by  a 
small  pipe,  the  water  will  tend  to  find  the  same  level  in 
both  jars.  This  action  can  be  compared  to  the  flowing 
of  the  current  from  one  electrode  to  another  in  an 
effort  to  establish  equilibrium  between  the  two.  When, 
however,  the  water  reaches  the  same  level  and  there 
is  no  existing  pressure  between  the  jars,  this  would 

54 


be  analogous  to  a  dead  cell,  that  is,  one  in  which  there 
is  no  difference  in  electrical  pressure  between  the 
electrodes. 


Before  considering  the  induction  coil  and  induced 
current,  refer  to  the  diagram.  If  the  source  of  electri- 
cal energy  is  at  B  and  A  is  a  core  made  up  of  soft  iron 
wires  surrounded  by  a  number  of  turns  of  insulated 
copper  wire  as  long  as  switch  (S)  is  open  no  current 
will  flow  through  the  coil.  Now,  suppose  the  circuit 
to  be  closed :  a  current  will  flow  through  the  coil,  thor- 
oughly magnetizing  the  core  A.  If  then  the  connection 
at  S  is  broken,  a  spark  will  follow  the  break  between 
the  points  (i  and  2),  this  action  demagnetizing  the 
core,  or  nearly  so. 

While  this  is  sufficient  to  work  satisfactorily  with 
the  make  and  break  type  of  ignition,  it  will  not  be 
strong  enough  for  the  jump  spark  system,  because  the 
difference  of  electric  pressure  between  the  points  (i 
and  2)  is  not  sufficient  to  cause  the  spark  to  jump 

55 


across  the  high  resistance  air  gap  between  the  points 
of  a  spark  plug. 

It  must  be  understood  that  in  the  coil,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  20,  a  spark  follows  only  the  break  between  the 
points  i  and  2,  and  that  an  electrical  path  was  offered 
to  the  current. 

In  the  jump  spark,  however,  the  spark  must  arc 
across  an  air  gap  that  is  always  open ;  hence  the  neces- 
sity for  the  high  voltage.  In  order  to  obtain  this  high 
pressure,  advantage  is  taken  of  the  induced  current. 

If,  as  in  Fig.  21,  we  have  a  core  surrounded  by  a 
number  of  turns  of  insulated  wire,  and  supplied  by  a 
source  of  current,  B,  and  around  this  coil  another  coil 
of  fine  insulated  wire  is  wound,  then,  it  is  a  fact  that 


if  a  current  be  made  to  flow  through  the  first  coil,  it 
will  induce  in  the  second  coil  a  current  whose  voltage 
is  proportionate  to  the  number  of  turns  of  wire  with 
which  the  second  coil  is  wound.  The  two  coils  are 
known  as  the  primary  and  the  secondary. 

56 


If  the  secondary  wiring  is  broken  as  at  points  A 
and  B,  a  spark  will  arc  across  these  points  each  time 
the  current  is  broken  in  the  primary.  If,  therefore,  S 
is  a  switch  that  is  alternately  open  and  shut  each  time 
that  it  is  closed  a  current  will  flow  through  the  primary 
wiring  and  will  bring  the  iron  core  from  zero  to  full 
magnetization.  If  the  switch  is  now  suddenly  opened 
there  occurs  a  change  in  the  magnetic  field  and  a  re- 
versal of  current  in  the  primary  winding  inducing  in 
the  secondary  a  current  whose  voltage  is  proportional 
to  the  number  of  turns  between  the  two. 

The  strength  of  this  induced  and  opposite  current  in 
the  primary  is  proportionate  to  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  current  can  be  broken  or  interrupted. 

Therefore  the  majority  of  coils  are  fitted  with  a  vi- 
brator (an  electrical  means  for  rapidly  opening  and 
closing  the  circuit)  for  the  purpose  of  magnetizing  and 
demagnetizing  the  core  with  as  great  frequency  as  pos- 
sible. Care  must  be  taken  not  to  confuse  this  with  the 
closing  of  the  circuit  by  the  ignition  cam  on  the  engine, 
for  were  the  vibrator  not  used,  only  one  single  spark 
would  result  at  each  breaking  of  the  ignition  cam  from 
its  contact  in  the  commutator;  that  is,  the  core  would 
be  demagnetized  but  once,  giving  but  one  spark  at  the 
plug.  With  the  vibrator  on  the  coil,  however,  the  coil 
is  brought  from  zero  to  full  magnetism  several  times, 
producing  at  the  plug  a  series  of  fat,  hot  sparks. 

57 


DIAGRAM  OF  WIRING  SCHEME 
FOR  JUMP  SPARK  SYSTEM  EM- 
PLOYING VIBRATOR  AND  CON- 
DENSER. 

Referring  to  the  dia- 
gram, suppose  Q  to  be 
the  source  of  current ; 
when  cam  E  reaches  a 
contact  with  spring  B 
there  exists  in  the  prim- 
ary  a  closed  circuit. 
This  magnetizes  the  core  H.  The  moment  this  be- 
comes thoroughly  saturated,  the  vibrator  F  is  attracted 
towards  the  core,  thus  breaking  the  circuit,  and,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  producing  a  spark  between  the 
points  of  the  plug.  The  core  becoming  demagnetized 
allows  the  vibrator  to  spring  back,  closing  the  circuit 
again  and  permitting  the  remagnetizing  of  the  core. 
This  action  is  continued  as  long  as  E  and  B  are  in  con- 
tact, thus  producing  at  plug  C  a  series  of  intensely  hot 
sparks. 

COMMUTATORS.  The  commutator  is  a  device 
whereby  the  primary  current  is  so  timed  that  the 
ignition  occurs  at  the  proper  instant  in  the  cylinder. 


COMMUTATORS. 

The  accompanying  sketches  show  simple  and 
efficient  commutators  for  a  two  and  a  four  cylinder  en- 
gine. In  Fig.  23,  B  is  a  fibre  block,  A  and  A1  are  steel 
arms  thoroughly  insulated  from  each  other.  S  is  half 
time  shaft  driven  from  the  engine.  N  is  a  spring  hold- 
ing the  arms  A  and  A1  in  proper  position.  X  is  igni- 
tion cam.  As  the  cam  revolves  it  successively  makes 
contact  with  the  springs  A  and  A1  distributing  the  pri- 
mary current,  and  so  timing  the  ignition  that  the  spark 
occurs  in  each  cylinder  at  the  proper  moment.  Other 
commutators  of  which  there  are  a  number  on  the  mar- 
ket are  modifications  of  this  principle. 

VARYING  TIME  OF  IGNITION.  There  are  two 
means  by  which  the  speed  of  the  motor  can  be  reg- 
ulated :  one,  throttling  the  mixture,  and,  two,  regulating 


the  time  of  ignition.  The  effect  of  the  first  is  to  cause 
the  cylinder  to  receive  a  less  weight  of  gas,  that  of  the 
second  to  regulate  the  time  of  igniting  the  charge. 

In  order  that  the  full  power  of  the  expansion  of  the 
gases  shall  be  exerted  on  the  piston,  the  charge  should 
be  ignited  while  compression  is  maximum,  or,  in  other 
words,  when  the  piston  is  at  its  outer  dead  center  on 
its  compression  stroke. 

If  the  ignition  is  retarded  and  the  charge  fired  after 
the  piston  has  passed  its  dead  centre,  there  is  a  con- 
sequent decrease  in  compression.  The  force  of  the 
explosion  is  reduced,  resulting  in  the  slowing  down  of 
the  engine. 

It  would  appear  that,  since  the  ignition  cam  revolves 
in  proportion  to  engine  speed,  this  would  automatically 
take  care  of  the  spark.  This  would  be  so  were  it  not 
for  two  causes:  one,  that  though  it  takes  an  inappre- 
ciable length  of  time  for  the  magnetizing  and  demag- 
netizing of  the  core  it  is  sufficient  at  high  speed  to  so 
delay  the  ignition  that  the  point  of  maximum  CQm- 
pression  has  passed  before  a  spark  occurs.  Also  if 
combustion  of  a  charge  of  gas  could  be  seen,  it  would 
be  founud  that  the  combustion  was  not  absolutely 
instantaneous,  but  that  a  certain  amount  of  time  was 
necessary  for  the  flame  to  propagate  itself  throughout 
the  mixture.  Therefore  in  high  speed  engines  the 
charge  is  fired  actually  before  the  piston  has  complet- 
ed the  compression  stroke  in  order  that  the  full  expan- 
sion of  the  gases  shall  be  converted  into  work.  Care 

60 


must  be  taken  when  the  engine  is  running  under  load 
not  to  advance  the  spark  too  much,  as  then  the  com- 
paratively low  speed  of  the  motor  gives  the  gases  suf- 
ficient time  to  expand,  before  the  piston  has  reached  its 
dead  centre,  thus  not  only  putting  negative  work  on 
the  engine,  but  subjecting  the  motor  to  severe  strains 
and  producing  an  unmistakable  metallic  knock  familiar 
to  all  motorists. 

There  are  three  sources  of  electrical  energy,  viz.,  dry 
cells,  accumulators  and  mechanical  generators. 

DRY  CELLS.  The  dry  cell  is  used  as  a  source  of 
current  on  many  cars  and  has  generally  proven  satis- 
factory owing  to  cheapness,  cleanliness  and  simplicity. 

The  cell  consists  of  a  zinc  casing,  this  forming  the 
negative  electrode.  The  carbon  or  positive  electrode 
is  encased  in  manganese  dioxide  and  coke.  The  elec- 
trolite  is  usually  a  compound  of  sal-ammoniac  and 
chloride  of  zinc. 

The  dry  cells  possess  one  advantage  over  storage 
batteries,  inasmuch  as  their  internal  resistance  is  high, 
that  they  are  not  so  quickly  damaged  by  short  circuit- 
ing. 

If  caught  on  the  road  with  dry  cells  apparently  dead, 
they  can  be  regenerated  enough  to  get  home  by  remov- 
ing the  paper  cover,  boring  holes  in  the  zinc  and  im- 
mersing in  weak  vinegar.  New  ones  should  be  pro- 
cured at  the  earliest  opportunity. 


61 


ACCUMULATORS.  Although  the  original  cost  is 
high,  the  small  expense  of  recharging  accumulators 
has  led  to  their  extensive  use. 

An  accumulator  consists  of  a  jar  containing  an  elec- 
trolite,  usually  dilute  sulphuric  acid  [specific  gravity 
1.25]  in  which  are  suspended  plates  made  of  lead  and 
lead  covered  with  lead  peroxide. 

When  charged  and  ready  for  use,  the  lead  plates 
are  a  dead  gray  color,  the  lead  peroxide  plates  bein^ 
brown.  When  in  a  discharged  state  all  plates  are  of 
approximately  the  same  color. 

Before  purchasing  an  accumulator  it  is  well  to 
ascertain  the  nearest  source  of  direct  current  for  charg- 
ing purposes,  as  an  alternating  current  cannot  be  used 
except  in  connection  with  a  rectifier,  not  usually  pro- 
curable at  the  ordinary  stations. 

You  should  never  allow  an  accumulator  to  become 
exhausted,  but  at  the  first  sign  of  weakness  have  it 
recharged,  strictly  according  to  directions  given  by 
the  makers. 

THE  MECHANICAL  GENERATOR.  In  the 
cheaper  forms  the  mechanical  generator  is  not  advisable, 
except  in  the  very  highest  priced  cars,  and  even  then 
a  good  accumulator  is  often  productive  of  less  trouble 
and  greater  satisfaction.  However,  there  are  several 
excellent  igniters  of  this  type  on  the  market. 

SPARK  PLUGS.  In  order  that  a  spark  shall  arc 
between  the  points  of  the  plug,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  two  points  be  thoroughly  insulated  from  each 

62 


other.  As  has  been  seen,  the  high  voltage  or  pressure 
of  the  secondary  will  leap  across  a  gap  placed  in  it,  in 
an  effort  to  establish  equilibrium  in  all  parts  of  the  cir- 
cuit, and  it  is  this  electrical  spark  arcing  the  points 
of  the  plug  that  ignites  the  charge. 

The  accompanying  diagram  shows  the  construction 
of  a  plug. 


SPARK  GAPS.  If  an  engine  shows  a  decided  tend- 
ency to  soot  its  plugs — and  if  this  cannot  be  remedied 
by  properly  adjusting  the  flow  of  oil — it  is  an  excellent 
plan  to  introduce  in  the  secondary  wiring  a  device 
known  as  a  spark  gap.  This  can  be  located  either  on 
the  dash  or  near  the  plug. 

The  simplest  form  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
diagram. 

^°  aPPty  this  device,  it 
is  necessary  only  to  open 
the   cable   near   the  plug, 
wiring    each    end    of    the 
cable  securely  to  the  terminals  of  the  spark  gap. 
There  will  then  exist  an  air  gap  between  the  points. 

63 


The  advantages  of  this  are  that  it  allows  the  voltage 
to  obtain  considerable  pressure  before  the  spark  will 
arc  across  the  points ;  and  a  spark  of  greater  inten- 
sity will  result.  There  is  little  danger  of  sooted  plugs 
if  this  is  used. 


64 


PART  II. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
POWER  LOSSES. 

As  previously  stated,  it  is  the  intention  of  the  writer 
to  go  only  so  far  into  the  principle  underlying  the 
operation  of  a  gasoline  motor  as  to  make  clear  the 
chapters  now  coming. 

There  are  certain  sounds  in  a  motor,  such  as  "miss- 
ing explosions,"  or  "skipping"  as  it  is  called,  that  may 
be  due  to  one  of  several  causes,  or  to  a  combination 
of  circumstances;  and  an  experienced  motorist  can  by 
a  process  of  elimination  locate  the  difficulty. 

As  with  a  physician  all  depends  on  a  proper  diag- 
nosis, for  the  trouble  once  found  the  remedy  is  obvious. 

If  on  a  tour  the  motor  stops,  it  is  evident  that  no 
amount  of  tinkering  with  the  electric  "system  will  help 
matters  when  the  trouble  lies  in  an  empty  gasoline 
tank,  nor  will  it  do  any  good  to  take  the  carburetter 
apart  if  the  ignition  is  faulty. 

The  keeping  of  an  engine  in  proper  tune  consists  in 
looking  after  the  details. 

There  are  three  causes  for  loss  of  power  in  a  gasoline 
motor,  viz : — defective  compression,  imperfect  ignition 
and  improper  carburation. 


LOSSES  BY  DEFECTIVE  COMPRESSION. 

As  already  seen,  a  charge  of  air  and  gasoline  is 
drawn  into  the  cylinder.  The  inlet  valve  then  closes 
and  the  gases  are  compressed  to  approximately  70 
Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

Any  leakage  of  this  charge  will  cause  a  serious  loss 
of  power.  There  are  three  places  where  such  leakage 
may  occur, — in  the  valves,  the  piston  rings,  and  the 
spark  plugs  and  the  valve  caps. 

LEAKY  VALVES.  When  a  car  leaves  the  factory 
the  valves  are  thoroughly  seated.  That  is,  the  bevel 
face  of  valve  V  (See  Fig.  4),  has  a  perfect  bearing 
against  a  corresponding  bevel  face  M  and  N. 

However,  after  a  car  has  been  run  several  weeks  the 
intense  heat  to  which  the  valves  are  subjected  particu- 
larly the  exhaust,  has  a  tendency  to  pit  the  face  or  to 
leave  a  deposit  of  carbon  on  the  seat. 

The  valve  then  instead  of  being  evenly  seated  by 
spring  (S)  does  not  close  sufficiently  tight  to  prevent 
a  certain  amount  of  compression  from  leaking  out. 
To  overcome  this  the  valves  should  be  properly 
ground. 

GRINDING  VALVES.  Remove  the  valve  plugs 
and  spring.  The  valve  can  then  be  pushed  out.  If 
both  valves  are  taken  out  together,  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  mix  them  up. 

As  in  everything  else  there  is  a  right  and  a  wrong 
way  to  grind  a  valve.  Make  a  paste  of  flour  of  emery 


and  oil,  wipe  the  face  of  the  valve  and  seat  carefully. 
Then  apply  a  small  amount  of  paste  to  the  valve. 

The  grinding  is  best  done  using  .a  screw  driver  and 
turning  the  valve  in  its  seat  half  a  turn  one  way  and 
then  another,  frequently  lifting  the  valve  clear  of  the 
seat  in  order  that  no  particle  of  emery  shall  become 
embedded  in  it  with  a  consequent  damage  to  the  seat. 

The  operation  will  take  some  five  minutes.  The 
valve  and  seat  should  then  be  wiped  clean  and  the 
valve  replaced  and  given  a  few  turns.  Examination 
will  prove  whether  the  seat  is  perfect  or  not. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  the  emery  from 
getting  into  the  cylinder  proper. 

If  the  operation  of  grinding  in  a  valve  is  entirely 
unfamiliar  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  get  some  one  who 
understands  grinding  to  do  it  the  first  time,  as  much 
that  cannot  be  written  can  be  learned  by  watching. 

LEAKAGE  BY  PISTON  RINGS.  The  piston  is 
fitted  with  rings  which,  springing  against  the  walls 
of  the  cylinder,  afford  a  gas  tight  joint. 

In  a  well-built  engine  loss  of  compression  from  this 
cause  is  unlikely. 

It  often  happens,  however,  owing  to  either  the  use 
of  a  poor  quality  of  oil  or  too  much  lubricant,  that 
rings  become  so  gummed  that  they  stick  in  the  piston 
grooves  and  do  not  spring  tightly  against  the  cylin- 
der ;  thus  compression  is  lost. 

If  the  engine  is  turned  over  by  hand  a  hissing  in 
the  cylinder  will  indicate  trouble  of  this  kind. 

69 


To  free  the  rings,  remove  the  spark  plugs  and  pour 
in  about  a  half  cupful  of  kerosene.  Turn  the  engine 
over  a  few  times  and  then  draw  off  the  kerosene  by 
opening  the  pet  cock.  The  kerosene  will  cut  the  oil 
and  free  the  rings.  It  is  well  to  leave  the  cocks  open 
a  minute  or  so  after  starting  the  motor. 

The  frequent  use  of  kerosene  in  this  manner  keeps 
the  cylinder  and  piston  in  fine  condition,  the  only  ob- 
jection being  that  it  has  a  tendency  to  soot  the  plugs. 
These  are,  however,  easily  cleaned. 

LEAKS  AROUND  SPARK  PLUGS  AND  VALVE 
CAPS.  If  the  spark  plug  leaks  compression  due  to  the 
blowing  out  of  its  packing,  the  remedy  is  a  new  plug. 
Care  should  be  taken  also,  to  see  that  the  valve  plugs 
and  spark  plugs  are  screwed  tightly  into  the  cylinder. 
If  either  are  suspected  of  leakage,  oil  can  be  squirted 
around  the  joints.  Any  appreciable  leak  will  manifest 
itself  by  bubbles. 

The  compression  can  be  tested  by  screwing  a  gauge 
into  the  cylinder  in  place  of  the  spark  plug,  and  taking 
a  reading  as  the  motor  is  turned  over  by  hand. 

After  becoming  familiar  with  your  particular  motor 
any  loss  of  compression  can  be  detected  by  cranking. 
LOSSES  BY  IMPERFECT  IGNITION. 

The  ignition  system  in  a  car,  particularly  that  em- 
ploying either  "dry  cells"  or  "accumulators"  is  com- 
paratively simple.  Yet  it  is  a  fact  that  nine-tenths  of 
the  trouble  that  the  average  motorist  meets  is  due  to 
lack  of  knowledge  on  this  important  subject.  The 


chapter  on  ignition  [PART  I.]  explains  the  principles 
upon  which  it  depends  and  should  be  carefully  studied. 

When  "skipping"  or  missing  explosions,  the  car 
will  run  in  a  jerky  manner,  the  missing  being  par- 
ticularly noticeable  when  running  with  full  throttle 
under  load,  as  is  the  case  when  ascending  a  hill. 

A  gradual  falling  off  in  power  without  the  engine 
actually  missing  can  also  usually  be  traced  to  a  weak  or 
partially  depleted  source  of  current;  not  always, 
however,  as  a  gradual  loss  in  compression  will  produce 
similar  results.  (See  Loss  of  Compression.) 

CAUSES  OF  POOR  IGNITION. 

1 — Weak  batteries  or  accumulator. 

2 — Loose  connections  in  any  of  the  low  tension  cir- 
cuits. 

3 — Corroded  or  rusty  terminals. 

4 — Insufficient  contact  at  commutator. 

5 — Grounding  of  current  in  either  primary  or  sec- 
ondary. 

6 — Short  circuiting  in  one  or  both  circuits. 

7 — Sticking  or  improperly  adjusted  vibrators. 

8 — Sooted  or  dirty  spark  plugs. 

WEAK  BATTERIES.  Every  motorist  using  either 
dry  cells  or  an  accumulator  should  provide  himself 
with  an  ammeter  or  ammeter-volt-meter  combined, 
Dry  cells  should,  be  tested  with  an  ammeter,  and  any 
cell  falling  under  six  amperes  should  be  rejected. 
As  a  set  of  cells  is  usually  installed  at  the  same  time, 


the  entire  battery  will  probably  be  found  weak.  New 
cells  should  be  substituted.  The  majority  of  cars  are 
equipped  with  two  sets  of  cells  and  provided  with  a 
switch  so  arranged  that  either  or  both  sets  can  be 
used. 

Accumulators  should  be  tested  with  a  volt-meter. 
DO  NOT  USE  AN  AMMETER.  A  fully  charged  ac- 
cumulator rated  at  "six  volts"  will  show  over  this 
when  fresh.  When  voltage  falls  to  five  and  seven- 
eights,  it  should  be  removed  from  the  car  and  re- 
charged, the  usual  cost  being  50  cents.  A  good  ac- 
cumulator will  in  a  two-cylinder  engine  give  approxi- 
mately 1,000  miles. 

SERIES  WIRING.  Five  dry  cells  usually  make  up 
the  battery  and  are  wired  in  series.  That  is,  the  posi- 
tive and  negative  poles  are  alternately  connected,  the 
positive  wire  running  to  one  side  of  the  switch. 

Another  set  of  five  cells  similarly  wired  is  attached 
to  the  other  side  of  the  switch.  The  negative  poles  of 
both  sets  are  grounded. 

In  operating  a  car  so 
wired,  it  is  advisable  to 
distribute  the  use  equally 
between  both  sets.  That 
is  run  on  one  battery  for  half  an  hour,  and  then  change 
over  to  the  other  side. 

The  advantages  of  this  are: — Greater  opportunity 
is  given  the  cells  to  recuperate,  insuring  longer  life; 
also  the  cells  will  then  become  weak  at  about  the  same 

72 


time,  making  it  possible  to  wire  them  successfully  in 
parallel. 

PARALLEL  WIRING.  When  both  batteries  have 
fallen  to  approximately  seven  amperes  per  cell,  extra 
mileage  can  be  obtained  by  firing  the  two  batteries  in 
parallel  and  using  one  side  of  switch  only.  In  con- 
nection with  this,  it  must  be  remembered  that  when 
cells  are  wired  in  series,  the  voltage  is  increased  as 
the  number  of  cells  is  increased,  the  amperage  remain- 
ing constant.  In  parallel  wiring,  the  voltage  remains 
constant  and  amperage  increases. 

If,  then,  two  batteries  whose  cells  are  wired  in  series 
are  connected  in  parallel,  the  result  will  be  double  the 
amoerage  of  either  battery  with  the  same  voltage. 

Diagram  showing  connections  of  two  batteries  in 
series  connected  in  parallel. 


Since  successful  ignition  depends  primarily  upon  the 
source  of  current,  much  trouble  will  be  avoided  if  the 
cells  are  frequently  examined  and  tested.  In  connec- 
tion with  this,  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  testing 
with  an  ammeter,  the  cell  is  short  circuited.  Hence, 
the  reading  should  be  made  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

73 


LOOSE  CONNECTIONS.  Loose  connections  in 
the  low  tension  system  will  cause  the  engine  to  miss, 
particularly  on  rough  roads.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  all  battery  connections  are  tightly  screwed  down. 

Do  not  use  an  ordinary  copper  wire  for  connecting- 
cells,  but  especially  prepared  "battery  connections." 

The  wiring  on  the  coil  should  be  examined  to  make 
sure  that  all  connections  are  tight,  as  should  also  the 
wires  to  the  commutator. 

CORRODED  TERMINALS.  A  rusty  or  corroded 
terminal  will  not  give  proper  contact.  All  connections 
should  be  clean,  as  dirt,  rust,  etc.,  increase  the  resist- 
ance in  the  circuit. 

This  is  particularly  true  with  accumulators,  for  if 
the  acid  spills  over,  the  terminals  on  the  battery  will 
become  corroded.  When  this  occurs  they  should  be 
carefully  cleaned  and  polished  with  fine  emery  cloth, 
after  which  a  thin  coating  of  vaseline  is  advisable. 

Though  apparently  a  good  contact  is  made  at  the 

commutator,    a   careful    examination    will    sometimes 

prove  this  not  to  be  the  case,  particularly  on  that  type 

of  commutator  in  which  a  definite  break  is  not  made. 

,  Referring  to  diagram.         A  =  fibre  disc> 

B  =  metal  strip. 

^  and  C1  =  contacts. 

As  A  revolves,  B  makes 
\  contact  successively  at  C 

SIR/  and    C1.      Small    particles 

of    metal    and    fibre    are 
74 


ground  off  and  mix  with  the  oil,  providing  at  times  an 
electrical  path  as  shown  by  arrows,  thus  tending  to 
short  circuit  the  batteries. 

With  commutators  operating  on  this  principle,  the 
disc  A  should  be  frequently  washed  off  with  gasoline 
and  the  contacts  so  adjusted  that  a  good  bearing  is  es- 
cured. 

A  commutator  of  the  form  as  shown  in  Fig.  23  is  less 
likely  to  short  circuit,  as  an  air  gap  exists  always  between 
cam  B  and  contact  blocks  C  and  C1,  except  at  the  proper 
firing  point. 

GROUNDING.  A  short  circuit  is  sometimes  a  dif- 
ficult matter  to  locate.  If  it  occurs  in  primary  wiring, 
the  batteries  will  be  rapidly  depleted,  particularly  an 
accumulator,  due  to  its  low  internal  resistance.  If  the 
short  circuit  occurs  in  the  "high  tension"  system,  no 
spark  will  jump  at  the  plug.  If  the  batteries  deplete 
themselves  too  rapidly,  the  primary  wiring  should  be 
thoroughly  gone  over  and  any  defects  in  insulation 
wound  with  "electric  tape." 

A  common  cause  of  short  circuiting  is  often  due  to 
the  leaving  of  tools,  such  as  a  wrench,  screw  driver, 
etc.,  on  top  of  the  batteries.  Care  should  be  taken  that 
nothing  of  a  metallic  nature  is  left  there. 

A  short  circuit  in  secondary  is  usually  easily  located, 
as  the  shigh  voltage  in  this  system  makes  the  leak  ap- 
parent. It  can  often  be  detected  by  a  buzzing  noise, 
such  as  is  made  by  the  spark  jumping  the  points  of  a 
plug. 

75 


Never  attempt  to  repair  a  broken  secondary  cable, 
but  replace  with  a  new  one,  and  do  not  use  ordinary 
bell  wire  in  the  high  tension  circuit. 

VIBRATOR  ADJUSTMENTS.  Referring  to  chap- 
ter on  Ignition,  Part  I,  it  was  seen  that  the  primary 
current  was  made  and  broken  with  great  frequency  by 
the  vibrator  on  the  coil.  If  the  platinum  points  on 
either  vibrator  or  adjusting  screw  become  so  pitted  as 
to  cause  the  vibrator  to  stick,  no  spark  will  occur  at 
the  plug.  The  vibrators  should  be  frequently  exam- 
ined, and  if  the  platinum  points  are  not  flat  and  smooth, 
they  should  be  rubbed  down  with  a  small  dead  smooth 
file,  care  being  taken  not  to  dress  more  than  is  neces- 
sary for  a  good  contact. 

The  proper  tuning  of  a  vibrator  is  of  vital  impor- 
tance, for  if  it  is  not  correctly  adjusted,  the  car  will 
run  unsatisfactorily,  no  matter  how  perfect  the  rest  of 
the  ignition  system. 

There  are  two  methods  of  making  this  adjustment : — 
i — Tuning  vibrator  by  ear.     2 — Adjusting  by  trial. 

When  a  car  leaves  the 
factory,  the  vibrators  are 
properly  set,  and  should 
give     the     right     "buzz" 
Hence,  it  is  an  excellent 
plan   to   familiarize   one's 
self  with   this   sound,   as 
future  adjustment  can  be 
made  with  this  in  mind. 


Diagram  No.  30  shows  an  arrangement  of  the  trem- 
bler and  adjusting  screw.  The  tension  on  spring  T  is 
varied  by  screwing  up  or  down  on  A. 

To  properly  adjust  a  coil  of  this  type,  loosen  set- 
screw  N.  Then  so  adjust  A  that  a  sharp  steady  buzz 
is  heard,  after  which  A  should  be  locked  into  place  by 
tightening  set-screw  N. 

A  similar  coil  is  shown 
in  Diagram  31,  in  which 
a  double  adjustment  is 
permitted  by  varying  not 
only  the  travel  of  the 
trembler  by  the  adjust- 
ment at  A,  but  also  the 
tension  of  spring  by  set- 
screw  S.  In  adjusting  a  coil  of  this  type,  it  is  advis- 
able to  give  the  trembler  about  one-sixteenth  of  an 
inch  travel  between  O  and  M,  the  final  adjustment 
being  made  at  S  until  the  proper  buzz  is  obtained. 

When  a  coil  has  been  so  set  that  the  vibrators  have 
the  proper  sound,  a  further  adjustment  can  be  made 
while  the  engine  is  running. 

In  the  case  of  a  single  cylinder  car,  one  coil  only  is 
used.  Speed  up  the  motor.  Then  so  adjust  the  tension 
on  the  vibrator  that  the  maximum  motor  speed  is 
reached.  In  making  this  adjustment,  the  spring  ten- 
sion is  controlled  by  either  screw  A  as  in  Fig.  30  or 
S  as  in  Fig.  31.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  as 
batteries  weaken,  the  spring  tension  must  be  decreas- 

77 


ed.  A  car  that  runs  perfectly  when  cells  are  fresh 
will  show  a  falling  off  in  power  after  having  run  some 
400  to  500  miles.  A  readjustment  of  vibrators  will 
then  greatly  increase  the  power. 

Two  cylinder  cars  employ  two  coils.  To  adjust 
them,  the  same  method  is  used  as  in  the  case  of  the 
single  cylinder,  except  that  one  vibrator  is  held  down. 
One  cylinder  only  will  then  fire.  After  this  has  been 
adjusted  treat  the  other  trembler  in  a  similar  manner. 
The  same  method  is  followed  for  adjusting  coils  on 
three  or  more  cylinders. 

SOOTED  PLUGS.  Another  cause  of  poor  ignition 
is-  the  fouling  of  spark  plugs  due  to  the  carbonizing  of 
oil  in  the  cylinders. 

An  electrical  path  is  then  offered  to  the  current,  no 
opportunity  being  given  the  voltage  to  attain  a  pres- 
sure high  enough  to  jump  the  resisting  air  gap  be- 
tween the  points  of  the  plug. 

If  the  vibrators  are  working  properly  and  yet  no 
ignition  is  effected,  the  plugs  should  be  removed  and 
examined.  The  points  will  probably  be  found  to  be 
covered  with  a  sooty  deposit.  Plugs  should  be  cleaned 
by  soaking  in  gasoline,  then  given  a  scouring  with  a 
stiff  brush,  rinsing  again  to  be  sure  that  all  deposits  of 
carbon  are  removed.  Many  plugs  are  made  so  that  they 
can  be  taken  apart,  facilitating  a  thorough  cleaning. 

Extra  plugs  should  be  carried  at  all  times  and  when 
trouble  of  this  kind  occurs,  insert  a  new  plug.  The  old 
one  can  be  cleaned  later. 

78 


In  testing  a  plug,  lay  the  metal  portion  on  some  part 
of  the  engine  fastening  the  cable  in  place,  as  if  the  plug 
were  in  the  cylinder,  care  being  taken  that  this  end  of 
the  plug  is  free  from  any  contact  with  the  engine  or 
frame.  Throw  the  switch  and  crank  engine  slowly 
over.  An  intense  white  spark  will  jump  across  the 
points  of  the  plug.  If  no  spark  or  a  weak  one  occurs, 
try  another  plug.  If  this  acts  in  a  similar  manner,  try 
the  same  plug  on  the  other  side.  If  it  gives  a  good 
spark  here,  the  fault  is  evidently  not  in  the  plug. 

In  working  with  the  high  tension  system,  be  sure 
that  the  switch  is  open.  Otherwise,  an  unpleasant 
shock  will  be  experienced  if  ignition  cam  is  at  the 
firing  point. 

LOSSES  BY  IMPROPER  CARBURATION. 

As  has  been  stated  the  function  of  the  carbureter 
is  to  mix  in  fixed  and  unvarying  proportions  such 
weights  of  air  and  gasoline  that  the  resulting  mixture 
shall  be  explosive. 

If  the  ratio  between  the  two  varies  between  too 
great  limits,  or  in  other  Words,  the  mixture  becomes 
too  rich  or  too  poor,  the  motor  will  either  show  less 
than  normal  power  or  will  skip,  which  amounts  to 
the  same  thing.  The  remedy  for  this  is  to  properly 
adjust  the  needle  valve,  regulating  the  gasoline  supply. 

There  are  so  many  types  of  carbureters  on  the  mar- 
ket that  it  is  impossible  to  give  directions  for  the 
proper  setting  of  each.  The  directions  as  sent  by  the 
manufacturers  should  be  carefully  followed. 

79 


A  simple  and  efficient  carbureter  is  that  shown 
in  Fig.  8.  To  properly  adjust  this,  the  throttle  should 
be  opened  and  spark  advanced.  Then  so  adjust  the 
needle  valve  that  a  maximum  motor  speed  is  attained 
with  regular  explosions.  A  second  adjustment  is  per- 
mitted, the  object  of  this  is  to  so  regulate  the  air  sup- 
ply at  low  speed  that  the  motor  will  not  miss  and  yet 
will  turn  over  slowly.  To  make  this  adjustment,  close 
throttle  and  retard  spark.  The  motor  may  now  run 
either  too  fast  or  it  may  stop  altogether. 

Loosen  set-screw  and  so  adjust  arm  on  quadrant 
that  the  motor  will  run  at  lowest  possible  speed  with 
regular  explosions.  When  the  proper  point  has  been 
found,  tighten  the  adjusting  screw. 

A  well-designed  carbureter  is  productive  of  little 
trouble.  The  following  difficulties  will  effect  its  proper 
operation : — 

I — Sticking  of  float. 

2 — Float  too  heavy,  increasing  the  richness  of  the 
mixture. 

3 — Water  in  the  gasoline. 

4 — Loose  connections  between  carbureter  and  cyl- 
inder. 

5 — Choked  or  clogged  vaporizing  nozzle. 

FLOAT  STICKING.  A  float  will  occasionally 
stick,  causing  a  flooding  of  the  carbureter.  This  is 
easily  rernedied  by  unscrewing  cover  to  float  chambei 
and  freeing  the  float. 

80 


FLOAT  TOO  HEAVY.  A  float  made  of  cork 
increase  in  weight  after  being  used  for  some  time, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  absorbs  a  certain  amount  of 
gasoline.  This  increases  the  richness  of  the  mixture 
and  also  causes  flooding.  The  remedy  is  to  decrease 
the  weight  of  the  float,  until  the  column  of  gasoline 
is  flush  with  the  top  of  the  vaporizing  nozzle.  If 
the  float  is  made  of  metal  and  springs  a  leak  the  result 
is  the  same,  in  which  case  it  should  be  carefully  sold- 
ered, using  only  just  enough  to  stop  the  leak,  other- 
wise the  float  will  be  made  too  heavy. 

WATER  IN  GASOLINE.  Water  in  gasoline 
causes  more  carbureter  troubles  than  any  other  one 
thing,  and  yet  it  is  easily  avoided  if  care  is  taken  to 
see  that  all  gasoline  is  strained  through  a  chamois 
skin  before  being  put  in  tank. 

If  the  motor  misses  and  the  cause  is  not  due  to  poor 
ignition,  the  trouble  may  be  located  by  removing  the 
plug  in  the  bottom  of  the  carbureter  and  catching  the 
contents  in  a  cup.  If  any  water  is  present  it  will  settle 
as  globules  in  the  bottom. 

A  large  funnel  in  which  is  placed  a  chamois  skin 
should  always  be  carried ;  and  make  it  an  unvariabie 
rule  never  to  use  any  g'asoline  that  has  not  first  been 
strained  through  it.  By  always  adhering  to  this,  much 
unnecessary  trouble  will  be  avoided.  If  a  needle  valve 
leaks  it  should  be  ground  in  its  seat  until  a  tight  joint 
is  obtained. 

81 


LOOSE  CONNECTIONS.  All  connections  be- 
tween cylinder  and  carbureter  must  be  tight.  If  any 
of  the  joints  become  loose  the  mixture  will  become 
diluted,  causing  the  motor  to  miss.  These  connections 
should  be  periodically  gone  over  to  make  sure  that 
all  is  tight. 

VAPORIZING  NOZZLE  CLOGGED.  It  often 
happens  that  a  small  particle  of  grit  or  dirt  gets  stuck 
in  the  vaporizing  nozzle,  either  causing  the  motor  to 
stop  altogether,  or  seriously  impairing  its  power. 

The  nozzle  should  be  removed  and  blown  out.  If 
the  gasoline  is  carefully  strained  trouble  from  this 
cause  will  be  avoided. 


82 


CHAPTER  X. 
CAUSES  OF  KNOCKS  IN  MOTORS. 

There  are  two  distinct  causes  of  knocks  in  motors : — 
that  due  to  a  loose  bearing,  and  the  metallic  hammer- 
ing caused  by  too  early  ignition. 

LOOSE  BEARING  KNOCKS.  Loose  bearings  on 
crank  shaft,  connecting  rod  and  wrist  pin  will  produce 
a  noticeable  pound,  particularly  at  high  speeds. 

Wrist  pin  bearings  may  wear  considerably  without 
causing  a  pound.  Any  looseness  in  crank  pin  or  main 
bearings  will  produce  a  serious  knock. 

In  a  two-cylinder  opposed  motor  it  is  an  easy  mat- 
ter to  adjust  not  only  the  crankpin  bearings  but  the 
wrist  pin  as  well. 

On  the  crank  pins  a  certain  amount  of  side  play 
is  allowed.  An  easy  way  to  ascertain  if  the  bearings 
on  the  big  end  of  connecting  rod  are  loose  is  to  place 
the  cranks  in  a  vertical  position.  Then  rock  the  fly 
wheel  a  trifle.  Any  play  on  the  crank  pin  is  readily  de- 
tected. 

In  adjusting  a  bearing  it  must  be  remembered  that. 
a  certain  expansion  occurs,  and  it  must  not  be 
adjusted  so  closely  that  the  bearing  becomes  too  tight 
after  the  motor  has  run  for  some  time.  Any  binding 
can  be  detected  by  turning  the  engine  over  by  hand. 

In  a  four-cylinder  vertical  motor  the  crank-pin  bear- 

83 


ings  can  be  examined  by  removing  the  hand  hole  cov- 
ers and  any  wear  taken  up. 

The  adjustment  of  the  main  engine  bearings  is  a 
more  difficult  matter.  On  a  well-designed  car  these 
should  last  a  season.  The  car  should  then  be  given  a 
thorough  overhauling. 

Another  cause  of  knock  is  a  loose  fly  wheel  on  shaft. 
Any  looseness  here  will  produce  a  serious  pound  and 
should  be  attended  to  at  once. 

IGNITION  KNOCKS.  If  on  the  compression 
stroke  the  charge  is  ignited,  the  force  of  explosion  will 
tend  to  drive  the  piston  back.  The  inertia  of  the  fly 
wheel  and  that  of  the  moving  car  will  overcome  this, 
carrying  the  piston  beyond  dead  centre.  This  pre- 
ignition  will  cause  a  metallic  knock  or  pound  that  is 
unmistakable,  and  is  a  frequent  cause  of  broken  rods 
or  sprung  shafts. 

At  high  speed  the  charge  is  actually  fired  before  the 
end  of  compression  stroke,  as  it  takes  a  certain  amount 
of  time  for  its  complete  combustion. 

The  quality  of  the  mixture  is  another  factor  govern- 
ing the  proper  firing  of  the  charge.  If  the  mixture  is 
slow  burning,  caused  by  either  being  too  rich  or  too 
poor,  the  engine  will  not  knock,  as  the  pressure  does 
not  rise  rapidly  enough. 

On  the  other  hand  a  perfect  mixture  or  one  a  trifle 
weak  will  ignite  almost  instantly  throughout  its  entire 
mass.  Hence,  a  position  of  the  spark  that  is  safe  for 

84 


one  mixture  will  cause  a  decided  knock  with  another, 
provided  the  engine  speed  remains  constant. 

This  pounding  is  most  apparent  where  the  engine  is 
slowed  down  under  load,  with  full  throttle,  as  is  the 
case  when  ascending  a  grade.  Ignition  then  should 
be  gradually  retarded  just  enough  to  cause  the  knock 
to  cease ;  more  than  that,  and  power  will  be  sacrificed, 
as  the  full  effect  of  the  expansion  of  the  gases  will  not 
be  utilized. 

Another  cause  of  knocking  is  due  to  the  self  ignition 
of  the  charge.  An  excess  of  oil,  carbonizing  in  the 
cylinder  head  and  on  the  valves,  becomes  incandes- 
cent. This  occasionally  gets  so  bad  that  the  motor 
will  continue  to  run  even  after  the  switch  is  open. 

The  frequent  use  of  kerosene  as  before  suggested 
will  prevent  this  deposit  from  accumulating. 

The  proper  management  of  the  spark  is  acquired  by 
use.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  a  good  practice  to  run 
with  a  well  advanced  spark  using  no  more  gasoline 
than  conditions  of  road,  speed,  etc.,  demand,  and  it  is 
poor  operating  to  run  with  a  retarded  spark  and  rely 
on  the  throttle,  as  it  is  not  only  wasteful  of  fuel  but 
tends  to  overheat  the  motor. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
ON  THE  ROAD. 

The  difficulties  that  a  motorist  meets  while  touring 
are  of  two  kinds.  The  first  consists  in  breaking  some 
part  where  repair  is  out  of  the  question,  or  it  may  be 
possible  to  make  a  temporary  repair  in  order  to  run 
the  car  home  under  its  own  power.  It  is  surprising 
how  much  can  be  done  with  an  ordinary  repair  outfit 
and  a  plentiful  supply  of  wire.  Such  occurences  are, 
however,  rare,  and  more  often  result  from  accident 
than  through  failure  of  any  important  part.  The  sec- 
ond and  larger  class  is  that  covered  in  the  chapter  on 
"Power  Losses." 

If  a  motor  has  been  running  well  and  begins  to  miss, 
the  trouble  increasing  till  the  engine  stops,  the  ignition 
should  come  under  suspicion. 

The  first  step  would  be  to  test  the  "batteries."  If 
these  are  found  strong,  that  is,  all  showing  over  seven 
amperes,  examine  the  coil  and  see  if  vibrators  have 
the  proper  sound.  (See  chapter  on  Ignition  for  the 
proper  method  of  tuning  vibrators.)  If  not  they  should 
be  properly  adjusted. 

Now  crank  the  motor.  If  it  does  not  start  readily, 
the  plugs  should  be  removed  and  tested.  (See  chapter 
on  Ignition,  Sooted  and  Dirty  Plugs.) 

If  no  spark  occurs  try  new  plugs.  If  still  no  spark 

86 


occurs  and  the  vibrator  works,  there  is  a  short  circuit 
in  the  high  tension  system.  All  cars  employ  such 
heavy  secondary  cables  that  short-circuiting  here  is 
unlikely. 

An  excess  of  cylinder  oil  will  carbonize  on  the  plugs, 
short  circuiting  them.  These  should  be  either  cleaned 
or  replaced  by  new  ones.  The  pet  cocks  in  the  cylinder 
should  then  be  opened,  allowing  the  excess  of  oil  to 
blow  out,  after  which  the  cocks  must  be  closed.  In 
adjusting  the  oilers  follow  the  advice  given  by  the 
makers. 

If  a  motor  suddenly  fires  on  one  cylinder  only,  the 
trouble  probably  lies  in  a  sticking  vibrator,  sooted  plug, 
or  a  loose  coil  or  commutator  wire. 

A  choked  nozzle  in  the  carbureter  will  either  stop 
the  motor  at  once,  or  cause  it  to  miss  several  explos- 
ions, then  fire  rapidly,  a  moment  after  which  it  will 
miss  again.  On  opening  the  throttle  the  motor  will 
probably  stop.  In  this  case  the  remedy  is  to  remove 
and  clean  the  nozzle.  (See  chapter  IX.) 

CARE  OF  TIRES.  Though  subjected  to  the  hard- 
est use,  tires  usually  receive  little  or  no  attention.  The 
life  of  the  tire  is  in  proportion  to  the  care  it  receives. 

Oil  and  grease  are  ruinous  to  rubber,  and  tires 
should  be  kept  free  from  them. 

Never  run  with  flat  or  partially  deflated  tires,  but 
be  sure  that  they  are  always  hard. 

When  cuts  appear  in  the  outer  shoe  so  as  to  expose 
the  fabric,  have  the  same  promptly  repaired,  otherwise 


water  will  get  under  the  rubber  and  rot  the  fabric ;  this 
will  later  result  in  a  blow-out. 

When  applying  the  brakes  do  not  engage  them  so 
suddenly  as  to  lock  the  wheels.  Sudden  starting  as 
well  as  stopping  imposes  unnecessary  wear  on  the 
tires  and  strains  the  entire  chassis  as  well. 

Punctures  in  inner  tubes  can  be  patched  if  care  is 
taken.  However,  vulcanizing  is  much  the  surer  and 
safer  way.  At  least  two  inner  tubes  should  be  carried 
in  the  car  at  all  times.  It  is  almost  impossible  to 
properly  repair  a  tire  on  the  road. 

When  a  puncture  occurs  remove  the  casing  and 
insert  a  new  tube.  The  punctured  tube  can  then  be 
sent  away  and  properly  repaired,  after  which  it  will  be 
as  good  as  new. 

A  blow-out  or  bad  cut  in  the  outer  casing  requires  a 
new  shoe,  and  for  this  reason  an  extra  one,  properly 
covered  to  protect  it,  should  always  be  carried. 

A  fact  that  must  never  be  lost  sight  of  in  deciding 
upon  the  tire  equipment  for  a  car  is  the  ratio  between 
the  weight  of  the  car  and  diameter  of  tire.  This  prob- 
lem has  been  carefully  worked  out  by  every  manu- 
facturer, and  their  standard  equipment  is  correct  on 
this  all  important  point. 

An  interesting  instance  of  this  was  shown  in  the 
recent  Burrelle  tire  test  at  Long  Branch.  This  was  a 
failure,  inasmuch  as  it  did  not  prove  conclusively  which 
tire  could  withstand  the  most  abuse. 

The  test,  2,000  miles,  was  covered  with  but  little 

88 


tire  trouble,  though  the  most  adverse  conditions  were 
experienced.  It  was  intended  that  the  test  should  be 
so  severe  that  the  wearing  qualities  of  the  various 
makes  would  be  tested  and  a  comparison  then  made. 
Owing  to  the  excellent  showing  made  by  several  tires, 
this  was  impossible. 

Hence,  the  test,  though  a  failure  in  one  sense,  estab- 
lished an  important  point — that  a  tire  can  successfully 
withstand  2,000  miles  of  abuse,  provided  it  is  large 
enough. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  had  smaller  tires  been 'used  on 
these  same  cars  they  would  not  have  completed  the 
first  thousand  miles.  Another  interesting  point  aside 
from  the  tire  question,  though  really  a  part  of  it,  and 
more  closely  allied  to  it  than  is  generally  understood, 
is  the  proper  proportioning  of  weight  in  the  cars  used, 
this  being  such  as  to  impose  a  minimum  of  wear  on 
the  tires. 

Until  recently  the  tires  were  almost  invariably  too 
small  for  the  load  to  be  carried.  Now  that  this  subject 
is  better  understood  the  future  will  see  immunity  of 
tire  trouble  from  this  cause. 

SKIDDING.  On  wet  asphalt  or  on  muddy  or  clay 
roads,  the  greatest  care  must  be  exercised  to  prevent 
what  is  known  as  "skidding,"  or  a  lateral  movement 
of  the  car. 

This  is  particularly  objectionable  when  rounding  a 
turn  or  on  too  sudden  an  application  of  the  brakes.  If 

89 


proper  judgment  is  used,  there  is  no  danger  on  this 
score. 

When  approaching  a  sharp  corner  on  a  wet  or  slip- 
pery day,  release  the  clutch  and  let  the  car  coast 
around,  after  which  the  clutch  can  be  engaged. 

WINTER  DRIVING.  There  are  many  motorists 
who  use  their  car  throughout  the  entire  winter,  and  by 
dressing  warmly  the  car  can  be  used  with  considerable 
enjoyment. 

In  order  to  obtain  traction  in  the  snow  or  ice,  the 
tires  should  be  fitted  with  some  special  tread  or  grip. 
There  are  several  tires  especially  prepared  for  this 
purpose.  Chaining  the  rear  wheels  also  answers  the 
same  purpose. 

In  the  winter,  care  must  be  used  to  prevent  the  water 
from  freezing  in  the  cooling  system,  as  ruined  cylinders 
and  radiator  will  result. 

On  extremely  cold  days  the  car  should  not  be  left 
standing  with  the  motor  dead ;  it  is  safe  to  leave  a  car 
with  the  motor  running.  When  a  car  is  put  up  for 
the  night,  unless  the  garage  is  properly  heated,  all 
water  should  be  drawn  from  radiator  and  cylinder 
jackets. 

As  this  entails  considerable  trouble,  it  is  advisable  to 
use  some  good  anti-freezing  solution. 


00 


CHAPTER  XII. 
ANTI-FREEZING  SOLUTIONS. 

CALCIUM  CHLORIDE.  Make  a  saturated  solu- 
tion of  calcium  chloride  by  dissolving  fifteen  pounds  of 
commercially  pure  calcium  chloride  to  a  gallon  of 
water.  This  will  make  two  gallons  of  saturated  solu- 
tion. Dilute  with  an  equal  part  of  water.  This  makes 
a  cooling  solution  that  will  stand  a  temperature  of  15 
below  zero.  Specific  Gravity  1.20. 

The  above  solution  is  largely  used.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  danger  of  injuring  the  cooler  by  a  prolonged 
use  of  this  solution,  as  the  liquid  has  a  tendency  to 
attack  the  solder.  A  small  amount  of  lime  added  to 
the  solution  will  remove  any  tendency  to  acidity. 

GLYCERINE.  Glycerine  and  water  is  also  used.  A 
33%  solution  will  withstand  a  temperature  of  10% 
above,  while  a  50%  solution  will  not  freeze  at  10  below 
zero. 

There  is  no  danger  of  injury  to  the  cooler  from  using 
this  solution.  Glycerine  has,  however,  a  tendency  to 
disintegrate  rubber. 

WOOD  ALCOHOL.  The  disadvantages  inherent 
in  both  the  Calcium  Chloride  and  Glycerine  Solutions 
are  eliminated  by  the  use  of  a  solution  of  alcohol  and 
water. 

91 


The  advantages  of  this  solution  are  that  it  has  no 
injurious  action  on  either  metal  or  rubber. 

The  percentage  of  alcohol  and  water  depends  upon 
the  climatic  conditions  to  which  your  car  is  exposed. 

A  i$%  solution  will  prevent  freezing  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  15°  above  zero,  such  as  late  fall  and  early 
spring  weather.  Later  in  the  winter  season,  a  40% 
solution  is  safe,  as  such  a  mixture  will  not  freeze  at  25° 
below  zero. 

A  certain  amount  of  vaporization  will  take  place : 
such  should  be  replaced  by  a  50%  solution.  It  will  be 
found  that  in  a  well-designed  radiator  the  evaporation 
will  be  exceedingly  small. 

Per  Cent.  Temperature  in  Degrees  F.  that 
Alcohol.  Solution  Will  Withstand. 

10  18°  above 

25  o° 

40  24°  below 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  STORING  AND  HANDLING  OF 
GASOLINE. 

There  are  certain  conditions  imposed  by  insurance 
companies  and  city  authorities  governing  the  handling 
and  use  of  gasoline,  and  an  owner  of  a  car  should  first 
post  himself  on  these  before  installing  any  system.  In 
cities  where  the  car  is  kept  at  a  garage,  the  problem  is 
solved.  In  the  case  of  an  owner  having  his  own  garage 
there  are  several  excellent  systems  in  use  all  com- 
plying with  the  insurance  regulations. 

Gasoline  cannot  economically  be  kept  in  barrels, 
as  the  evaporation,  even  though  the  barrel  be  tightly 
sealed,  is  excessive.  A  simple  and  efficient  arrangement 
for  the  country  consists  in  a  cylindrical  iron  tank  hung 
on  a  suitable  frame.  The  gasoline  can  then  be  piped  to 
some  convenient  place.  The  advantages  of  this  system 
are  its  simplicity  and  cheapness.  In  more  populated 
territory,  or  where  the  tank  would  be  unsightly,  some 
underground  system  must  be  employed.  It  is  im- 
portant to  install  a  tank  of  sufficient  size,  as  it  not  only 
saves  the  annoyance  of  having  to  refill  it  constantly 
but  better  rates  can  be  obtained  than  when  buying 
gasoline  in  small  quantities.  A  proper  gasoline  stor- 
ing outfit  is  fairly  expensive.  It  is,  however,  poor  pol- 
icy to  economize  here,  as  a  good  reliable  system  will 

93 


last  almost  indefinitely  and  always  prove  a  source  of 
satisfaction. 

In  this  connection,  a  word  about  the  combustibility 
of  gasoline  may  not  be  out  of  place.  To  the  general 
public,  gasoline  is  a  dreadful  substance,  whose  object 
in  life  is  to  "blow  up."  While  this  is  not  true,  as  many 
a  motorist  can  testify  who  has  vainly  tried  to  get  a 
charge  to  ignite,  at  the  same  time  care  must  be  used  in 
handling  it,  and  it  should  never  be  brought  near  an 
open  flame.  In  case  a  gasoline  fire  starts,  do  not  pour 
water  on  it,  as  it  only  makes  the  matter  worse.  Dry 
sand,  salt,  or  some  dry  chemical  extinguisher  should  be 
used.  Two  or  three  fire  extinguishers  hung  in  the 
garage  may  at  some  time  be  the  means  of  saving  not 
only  the  car  but  the  building  as  well. 

If  possible,  a  square  hole  should  be  made  in  the 
floor.  An  old  register  is  an  excellent  covering  for  it. 
Then  if  any  leakage  occurs  in  the  gasoline  system  of 
the  car,  the  vapor  being  heavier  than  air  would  sink 
and  pass  out. 

Oil  soaked  waste  should  not  be  kept  lying  around, 
as  more  than  one  fire  has  been  started  by  spontaneous 
combustion.  In  this  connection  it  is  only  fair  to  say 
that  conditions  must  be  exactly  right  for  this  to  occur. 
There  is  no  danger  from  either  explosions  or  fire,  pro- 
vided gasoline  is  properly  stored  and  handled. 


94 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
SUGGESTIONS. 

Don't  examine  your  gasoline  tank  at  night  with  a 
match — it's  dangerous. 

It  is  an  excellent  scheme  to  mark  the  wires,  both  high 
and  low  tension,  by  pasting  numbers  on  them  and  sim- 
ilar ones  at  their  proper  terminals.  They  can  then  be 
assembled  readily  should  occasion  arise  making  it  nec- 
essary to  remove  them,  without  the  bother  of  trying 
and  testing  in  order  to  rewire  properly. 

A  vent  is  provided  in  the  gasoline  tank — this  must  be 
kept  open.  Otherwise  the  fuel  will  not  feed  readily  to 
the  carbureter. 

Don't  neglect  to  strain  all  gasoline  through  a  chamois 
skin. 

After  a  long  run  a  little  kerosene  squirted  into  the 
cylinders  will  free  the  rings  and  leave  the  motor  in 
good  condition. 

The  valves  of  an  engine  should  be  occasionally 
ground.  If  a  valve  is  well-seated,  but  little  grinding  is 
needed  to  keep  it  tight,  whereas  if  it  becomes  pitted 
from  long  neglect  the  operation  is  lengthy  and  tire- 
some. 

Nuts  that  have  rusted  tight  can  frequently  be  loos- 
ened by  kerosene.  This  failing,  heat  must  be  applied. 

In  cranking  a  motor  do  not  press  down  against  the 
compression  for  if  the  spark  lever  has  carelessly  been 

95 


left  advanced  a  serious  kick  will  result,  and  possibly  a 
broken  arm  or  head. 

In  cranking  a  motor  pull  up.  If  then  it  back-fires, 
no  harm  will  be  done. 

The  condition  of  an  accumulator  can  be  ascertained 
by  the  color  of  the  plates.  When  charged,  the  positive 
plates  are  of  a  chocolate  color,  the  negative  plates  being 
lead  color.  When  in  a  discharged  condition  the  plates 
are  both  reddish. 

Don't  neglect  to  see  that  all  tanks  are  full  before 
starting  on  a  run,  or  a  late  return  may  be  experienced. 

A  leaky  carbureter  is  a  dangerous  thing.  Make 
sure  the  needle  valve  is  tight  so  that  flooding  does  not 
occur. 

Proper  lubrication  is  of  vital  importance.  See  that 
all  the  moving  parts  receive  their  supply  of  oil. 

Don't  move  from  the  garage  without  a  jack  and  a 
spare  inner  tube.  Punctures  always  occur  at  inoppor- 
tune times. 

Attention  should  be  paid  to  details.  All  nuts,  bolts, 
etc.,  should  be  provided  with  some  satisfactory  means 
of  locking.  The  vibration  to  which  a  car  is  subjected 
has  a  tendency  to  loosen  the  nuts.  The  brakes  should 
receive  attention  and  be  relined  when  necessary. 

An  engine  that  leaks  oil  constantly  is  unpleasant  to 
run  and  has  a  disagreeable  odor.  If  all  joints  are  prop- 
erly fitted  or  gasketted,  trouble  on  this  score  will  be 
averted. 

A  spark  plug  that  is  sooted  can  often  be  cleaned 

96 


without  removal  from  the  cylinder  by  detaching  the 
cable  from  the  plug.  Then  start  the  motor  and  hold 
the  wire  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  away.  This 
makes  a  spark  gap  and  the  plug  will  fire,  even  if  badly 
sooted ;  the  plug  will  often  burn  itself  clean. 

If  on  replacing  the  wire  the  cylinder  again  misses, 
the  plug  should  be  removed  and  cleaned,  or  a  new  one 
substituted. 

A  choked  vaporizing  nozzle  can  often  be  freed  by 
flooding  the  carbureter  or  speeding  the  motor ;  the 
increased  suction  is  frequently  sufficient  to  carry  away 
the  obstruction. 

In  passing  a  frightened  horse,  it  is  best  to  pass  as 
quietly  as  possible  rather  than  stop.  The  sudden  stop- 
ping has  a  tendency  to  cause  the  horse  to  whirl  in  the 
shafts,  overturning  the  carriage. 

If  the  driver  signals  by  raising  his  hand,  the  car 
should  be  brought  to  a  stop  at  once.  Most  states  re- 
quire this  by  law. 

Any  unusual  noise  should  be  investigated  at  once, 
as  it  is  a  sure  indication  that  something  is  wrong. 

A  squeak  means  a  lack  of  lubrication  at  some  point 
and  a  possible  break-down  later  on.  This  should  be 
attended  to  at  once. 

A  knock  such  as  is  caused  by  a  loose  bearing  needs 
attention  at  the  earliest  possible  opportunity. 
•     Tires  should  be  pumped  up  until  hard.     If  in  shak- 
ing the  car  a  side  roll  is  noticeable,  the  tire  is  not  in- 
flated sufficiently. 

97 


If  on  a  cold  morning  the  motor  does  not  start  read- 
ily, a  small  amount  of  gasoline  squirted  through  the 
pet  cocks  into  the  cylinders  or  on  the  gauze  in  the  in- 
take pipe  will  overcome  the  difficulty. 

A  car  coming  in  covered  with  mud  should  be  washed 
at  once.  If  left  to  harden  over  night,  the  varnish  will 
be  spotted  and  the  fine  appearance  of  the  car  ruined. 

In  using1  a  wrench,  be  sure  that  it  exactly  fits  the 
nut.  Otherwise,  the  corners  will  become  rounded  mak- 
ing its  subsequent  removal  difficult. 

The  gear  case  and  housing  for  drive  gears  and  dif- 
ferential should  be  thoroughly  washed  out  with  kero- 
sene and  then  repacked  once  or  twice  a  season. 

Valve  springs  should  be  at  the  proper  tension ;  both 
inlet  and  exhaust  should  be  occasionally  removed  and 
stretched. 

Racing  the  engine  should  be  avoided.  It  is  poor 
operating  and  unnecessarily  racks  the  motor. 

Any  failure  in  the  circulating  pump  will  cause  the 
water  to  bo'l  in  the  radiator.  Clouds  of  vapor  issuing 
from  the  steam  vent  in  the  cooler  indicate  trouble  from 
this  cause.  If  the  car  is  run  without  water  in  the  cool- 
ing system  it  is  needless  to  say  that  the  cylinders 
will  overheat  and  probably  be  ruined.  This  is  due  to 
rank  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  operator.  Should 
a  seizure  of  a  bearing  occur  due  to  this  cause  allow  the 
motor  to  cool  off.  Do  not  pour  water  on  it.  After  it 
has  cooled  the  radiator  can  be  filled  and  the  motor 
plentifully  supplied  with  oil. 

98 


CHAPTER  XV. 
EQUIPMENT. 

The  proper  equipment  for  a  car  is  a  matter  that 
should  be  given  careful  attention. 

No  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  laid  down,  as  an  equip- 
ment necessary  for  an  extended  tour  would  be  unneces- 
sary and  cumbersome  if  the  car  is  to  be  used  locally. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  better  to  carry  a  full  set  of  tools, 
spare  parts,  etc.,  and  never  need  them,  than  to  want 
them  some  time  and  not  have  them. 

The  following  list  is  fairly  complete  and  should  meet 
ordinary  conditions : — 

TOOLS.  Complete  set  of  wrenches  as  furnished  by 
the  manufacturer,  including  open  end,  socket  and  valve 
plug  wrenches. 

12  inch  Stilson  wrench. 
6    "     Alligator     " 
Bicycle 

12  inch  Monkey 

If  the  car  is  chain  driven,  an  extra  chain  or  spare 
links  should  be  carried. 
8  inch  Screw  driver. 
2    "  "  " 

This  latter  is  particularly  desirable  in  adjusting 
vibrators,  oilers,  etc. 

Three-quarter  pound  machinist's  hammer. 

99 


Combination  plyers. 

Punch. 

Cold  chisel. 

Rat-tail  file. 

Half  round  file. 

Box  of  assorted  nuts,  screws  and  cotter-pins. 

The  above  are  small  and  require  but  little  room.  So 
much  time  is  saved  on  a  road-side  repair  by  having  the 
proper  tools  that  they  are  well  worth  taking  along, 
rolled  compactly  in  a  tool  sack. 

ELECTRICAL  ACCESSORIES. 

Battery  terminals. 

Battery  connections  assorted  sizes. 

Spool  of  insulated  copper  wire. 

Spool  of  iron  wire. 

Pocket  "ammeter-voltmeter"  combined. 

Small  dead  smooth  file  for  dressing  platinum  points. 

Extra  spark  plugs  (at  least  three). 

TIRES.  Inner  tubes  (at  least  two  of  these  should 
be  kept  in  a  water-proof  bag  and  sprinkled  with  French 
chalk). 

Extra  casing  (properly  protected  from  the  weather 
by  some  suitable  cover). 

Tire  manchon. 

Large  roll  tire  tape. 

Tire  repair  outfit. 

Jack. 

If  touring  in  a  section  where  roads  are  clayey,  "tire. 

TOO 


chains"    should    be    carried.      These   can . -be^ . 
applied  and  give  excellent  traction  e  ve&  oh  icfc.'  »'"• ' 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Tire  pump. 

Goggles. 

Calcium  carbide  for  gas  lamps. 

Gre-solvent  for  cleaning  the  hands. 

Old  pair  of  gloves. 

Old  duster  or  overalls. 

Small  can  of  compression  grease. 

Quart  can  of  cylinder  oil. 

Oil  gun. 

Waste. 

Extra  parts. 

Funnel  filled  with  chamois  skin  for  straining  gaso- 
line. 

This  list  though  more  complete  than  the  average 
motorist  is  apt  to  carry  is  none  too  large  where  any 
extended  touring  is  contemplated. 

It  can  be  enlarged  or  cut  down  as  experience  seems 
to  dictate  and  gives  a  basis  to  which  a  novice  can  refer. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
HINTS  ON  OPERATING  A  CAR. 

Sliding  Gears. 

When  a  man  becomes  the  owner  of  a  car  he  should 
look  for  instruction  to  the  agent  from  whom  the  car 
was  purchased.  In  this  connection  it  might  be  well 
to  say  something  concerning  the  duties  of  an  agent. 

There  are  too  many  so-called  agents  who  feel  that 
all  responsibility  ceases  when  the  car  is  once  sold. 
Such  a  short  sighted  policy  does  untold  damage,  not 
only  to  the  agent  himself,  but  to  the  manufacturer 
whom  he  represents. 

A  customer  becomes  either  enthusiastic  or  dissatis- 
fied according  to  the  service  that  the  car  gives.  And 
it  lies  in  the  power  of  the  agent  to  largely  control  this. 

It  happens  often  that  a  car  is  brought  into  a  section 
in  which  there  is  no  agent  or  competent  instructor. 
In  this  case  the  instruction  book  as  furnished  by  the 
factory  should  be  carefully  studied  and  every  detail 
mastered  before  any  attempt  is  made  to  run  the  car. 

TO  PREPARE  FOR  A  RUN.  See  that  all  tanks 
are  properly  filled.  If  there  are  any  grease  cups  on  the 
car  these  should  be  packed  with  grease,  the  brakes 
should  be  examined  to  be  sure  that  they  hold — the  tires 
should  be  hard. 

102 


TO  START  THE  MOTOR.  Put  the  gears  in  neu- 
tral position.  In  the  progressive  system  thi£  is  usu- 
ally the  second  notch  on  the  quadrant  from  the  front. 

Lever  position  denoted  in 
diagram.  If  you  are  not  cer- 
tain which  is  the  neutral  po- 
sition let  in  the  clutch,  then 
make  sure  that  the  switch  is 
open.  Crank  the  engine.  If 
the  car  does  not  move  the 
gears  are  at  neutral  point. 

When    all    is    in    readiness 
close    the    switch,    prime    the 
carbuter        and        reard        the 
spark.    This  is  important  as  a 
back  kick  will  result  if  spark 
is    carelessly    left    in    an    ad- 
vanced position. 
Crank  the  motor — in  this  connection,  do  not  press 
down,  but  pull  up  against  the  compression.    The  motor 
should  start  immediately.     In  cranking,   one  or  two 
quick  turns  is  preferable  to  an  hour  of  slow  turning. 

When  the  motor  has  started,  turn  on  all  lubricators 
that  are  riot  automatic.  The  motor  should  be  so  ad- 
justed when  it  leaves  the  factory  that  it  will  run  slowly 
with  retarded  spark  and  closed  throttle. 

The  operator  should  take  his  seat  and  speed  the 
motor  up  moderately  by  opening  the  throttle  and  ad- 
vancing the  spark.  (Do  not  race  the  engine).  Press 

103 


down  on  the  foot  clutch  and  throw  gears  into  low 
speed,  that  is,  the  lever  is  advanced  one  notch.  The 
clutch  should  then  be  let  in  gradually. 

To  stop,  press  down  on  both  pedals.  It  is  a  safer 
and  surer  method  for  the  beginner  to  release  the  clutch 
by  the  hand  lever,  the  objection  to  the  use  of  the 
foot  pedal  being  that  the  moment  the  pressure  of  the 
foot  is  released  the  clutch  engages,  while  with  the 
hand  lever  it  cannot  spring  back  by  accident. 

The  car  should  be  run  on  low  speed  until  the  mat- 
ter of  steering  becomes  easy  and  the  operator  has 
gained  some  confidence  in  himself.  Then  second  speed 
can  be  tried. 

SHIFTING  TO  SECOND.  Speed  the  motor  mod- 
erately. Then  press  down  on  the  clutch-release  at  the 
same  time  advancing  the  gear  control  lever  to  the  next 
notch,  after  which  the  clutch  should  be  let  in  gradually. 
The  second  speed  is  an  excellent  one  upon  which  to 
practice,  for  the  motor  does  not  have  the  same  tend- 
ency to  overheat  as  when  used  constantly  on  low,  and 
at  the  same  time  an  excessive  speed  cannot  be  ob- 
tained. 

HIGH  SPEED.  After  becoming  familiar  with  the 
operation  of  using  spark  and  throttle,  also  stopping  and 
starting,  the  high  speed  can  be  tried. 

As  before,  press  down  on  the  foot  pedal  and  bring 
the  gear  lever  sharply  back  as  far  as  it  can  go.  Then 
immediately  let  in  the  clutch. 

Do  not  attempt  fast  driving  until  complete  mastery 

104 


over  the  car  is  obtained.  Steering  is  an  easy  matter, 
more  so  at  high  than  low  speed:  At  the  same  time 
an  accident  can  easily  happen  and  at  high  speed  a  be- 
ginner may  not  be  able  to  act  quickly  enough  to  pre- 
vent it. 

REVERSING.  Before  attempting  to  reverse,  the 
car  should  be  brought  to  a  complete  stop.  The  clutch 
should  be  released  by  the  hand  lever.  The  gear  lever 
should  then  be  thrown  forward  as  far  as  possible  after 
which  the  clutch  should  be  gradually  engaged.  As  a 
car  is  backed  for  short  distances  only,  the  operator 
should  keep  hold  of  the  clutch  lever  so  that  the  car  can 
be  instantly  stopped. 

POINTS  ON  OPERATING.  The  foregoing  has 
simply  described  the  operations  in  changing  gears. 
There  are,  however,  a  number  of  little  points,  niceties 
in  operation,  that  make  either  a  good  or  indifferent 
driver. 

In  attempting  to  change  gears  when  the  car  is  stand- 
ing the  gears  often  will  not  mesh. 

If  the  clutch  be  very  gradually  engaged  till  the  fric- 
tion surfaces  barely  touch,  the  gears  on  the  counter 
shaft  will  revolve.  Then  the  gear  lever  can  be  shifted 
to  the  desired  position.  As,  however,  all  sliding  gear 
cars  should  be  provided  with  a  lock,  making  it  im- 
possible to  change  gears  when  the  clutch  is  engaged, 
it  is  then  equally  impossible  to  let  in  the  clutch  if  the 
gears  are  not  fully  meshed.  Hence  this  plan  cannot 
be  used  in  cars  fitted  with  this  safety  device.  A  slight 

105 


movement  of  the  car  or  a  change  of  position  in  the 
clutch  lever  will  let  the  gears  readily  mesh. 

A  good  plan  is  to  shift  into  second  or  low  before  the 
car  entirely  stops.  The  change  is  then  easily  made  and 
the  car  ready  to  start.  Usually  speaking  the  gears 
should  be  left  at  neutral  point  particularly  if  car  is  left 
with  the  motor  running. 

The  secret  in  changing  gears  is  to  mesh  them 
sharply.  Do  not  make  the  change  slowly  as  the  edges 
of  the  teeth  then  only  grind.  Never  look  down  at 
the  quadrant  to  see  if  the  lever  is  at  the  proper  notch. 
The  attention  of  the  driver  should  be  concentrated  on 
the  road.  It  requires  some  practice  to  know  exactly 
when  the  gears  are  meshed,  but  the  driver  soon  be- 
comes so  familiar  with  the  proper  position  of  the  gear 
lever  for  each  different  speed  that  it  is  never  necessary 
for  him  to  look  at  the  quadrant  in  order  to  hit  the  right 
one.  (  | 

In  changing  gears  the  speed  of  the  car  before  chang- 
ing should  approximate  the  speed  changed  to,  that  is, 
on  ascending  a  hill  that  cannot  be  taken  on  high,  the 
clutch  should  be  withdrawn  and  gears  quickly  shifted 
to  second.  The  motor  then  should  be  so  speeded,  that 
when  clutch  is  let  in  the  two  speeds  should  corre- 
spond. Never  continue  on  high  speed  so  that  the 
motor  labors,  as  it  will  not  only  strain  the  engine,  but 
the  vibration  also  becomes  unpleasant. 

In  changing  from  a  low  to  a  higher  gear  the  ideal 
condition  would  be  to  speed  the  car  and  slow  the 

106 


motor.  As  it  is  impossible  to  speed  the  car  except  by 
the  motor,  the  change  should  be  made  rapidly  in  order 
that  the  car  lose  as  little  of  its  momentum  as  possible, 

The  sliding  gear  construction  is  standard  on  large 
cars  and  for  such  has  proved  itself  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. The  pleasure  and  satisfaction  that  is  attained 
by  their  proper  manipulation,  is  well  worth  the  little 
time  it  takes  to  thoroughly  master  this  type  of  trans- 
mission. 

THE  OPERATION  OF  PLANETARY  GEARS. 

The  usual  type  of  planetary  transmission  gives  two 
speeds  forward  and  one  reverse,  all  being  controlled 
by  a  single  lever  at  the  side. 

This  construction  gives  two  neutral  points,  one  be- 
tween high  and  low  speed,  the  other  between  low  and 
reverse. 

TO  START  THE  CAR.  The  lever  should  be  in 
neutral  position  between  either  high  or  low,  or  low  and 
reverse,  the  latter  being  preferable  for  starting.  The 
motor  should  be  moderately  speeded,  then  lever  grad- 
ually thrown  forward  until  the  low  speed  engages. 
The  car  should  start  evenly.  If  it  starts  with  a  jerk 
it  is  a  sign  that  the  low  speed  clutch  or  band  was  too 
suddenly  engaged.  When  the  car  has  obtained  a  fair 
speed  push  the  lever  as  far  forward  as  it  will  go.  This 
engages  the  high  speed  clutch.  In  stopping,  the  lever 
should  be  withdrawn  to  neutral  point  between  high 
and  low  and  brakes  applied. 

When  running  on  high  speed  do  not  pull  into  low 

107 


until  the  car  has  been  slowed  down  to  approximately 
that  of  the  low  speed.  It  imust  be  remembered  that 
the  low  speed  acts  as  a  powerful  brake  if  engaged 
when  the  car  is  running  fast,  and  will  bring  the  ma- 
chine up  with  a  suddenness  that  will  probably  throw 
the  occupants  out  or  break  some  part  of  the  trans- 
mission or  differential. 

It  is  possible  when  running  on  the  high  to  pull 
through  low  provided  it  be  done  quickly,  care  being 
taken  not  to  throw  over  into  reverse. 

The  object  as  in  sliding  gears  is  to  maintain  as 
even  a  movement  of  the  car  when  changing  speeds  as 
possible.  This  is  readily  acquired  by  a  little  practice. 


1 08 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


Automobile  Terms  and  Their  Equivalents  in  French,  German 

and  Spanish. 

ELECTRICAL 
Dry  cell 

ELECTRIQUE 
Pile  seche 

ELEKTRISCH 
Trockenes  Element 

ELECTRICO 
Pila  seca 

Accumulator 

Accumulateur 

Akkumulator 

Acumulador 

Commutator 

Commutateur 

Kommutator 

Conmutador 

Induction  coil 

Bobine  d'induction 

Induktions-Spirale 

Bobina    de    induc- 

cion 

Spark  plug 

Cheville  a  etincelle 

Funken-Stopsel 

Clavija  de  chispa 

Switch 

Interrupteur   a  le- 

Umschalter 

Conmutador  corta 

vier 

corrientes 

Vibrators 

Vibrateurs 

Vibratoren 

Vibrantes 

Primary  current 
Secondary  current 

Courant  principal 
Courant  induit 

Primarer   Strom 
Sekundarer   Strom 

Corriente  primaria 
Corriente  secunda- 

ria 

Terminals 

Bornes 

Klemmen 

Terminos 

Battery  connec- 

Accouplements de 

Batterie-Verbin- 

Conexiones  de  ba- 

tions 

baterie  ^ 

dungen 

teria 

Ammeter 
Voltmeter 

Amperemetre 
Voltmetre 

Amperemeter 
Voltmeter 

Amperimetro 
Voltimetro 

Copper  wire 
Platinum  points 

Fil  de  cuivre 
Pointes  de  platine 

Kupferdraht 
Platin-Spitzen 

Hilo  de  cobre 
Puntas  de  platino 

CARBURATION 

CARBURATION 

KARBURATION 

CARBURACION 

Carburetter 

Carburateur 

Karburator 

Carburador 

Throttle 

Soupape  d'arret 

Zulass-Ventil 

Valvula  de  cuello 

Accelerator 
Needle  valve 

Accelerateur 
Soupape  a  aiguille 

Beschleuniger 
Nadel-Ventil 

Acelerador 
Valvula  de  aguja 

Air  valve 

Soupape  a  air 

Luft-Ventil 

Valvula  de  aire 

ENGINE 

MACHINE  A 

DAMPF- 

MAQUINA  DE 

VAPEUR 

MASCHINE 

VAPOR 

Motor 

Moteur 

Motor 

Motor 

Valves 

Souoapes 

Ventile 

Valvulas 

Exhaust  valve 

Soupape     d'echap- 

Abzugs-Ventil 

Valvula    de    educ- 

Inlet  valve 

pement 
Soupape    d'arriv6e 

Einlass-Ventil 

ci6n 

Valvula  de  aspira- 
cion 

Valve  springs 

Ressorts    de     sou- 

Ventil-Federn 

Muelles  de  valvula 

Inlet  pipe 

pape 
Tuyeau  de  prise 

Einlass-Rohr 

Tubo  de  toma 

Exhaust  pipe 

Tuyeau  d'echappe- 

Abzugs-Rohr 

Tubo  de  escape 

Cotter  pins 

ment 
Clavettes   de   fixa- 
tion 

Keil  mit  Gegenkeil 

Chabetas    de    fija- 
ci6n 

Piston 
Piston  rings 
Cylinder 
Crank  shaft 

Piston 
Ressorts  de  piston 
Cylindre 
Arbre    en    vilebre- 

Kolben 
Kolben-Ringe 
Zylinder 
Schrauben-Welle 

fimbolo 
Argollas  de  embolo 
Cilindro 
Eje    de    biela 

Crank  case 

quin 
Nille 

Kurbel-Heft 

Chaqueta  de  biela 

Connecting  rod 
Wrist  pin 

Bielle 
Boulon   de   bielle 

Trieb-Stange 
Triebstangen- 

Biela 
Perno  de  biela 

Bolzen 

Nuts 

ficrous 

Schraubenmuttern 

Tuercas 

Bolts 

Boulons 

Bolzen 

Pernos 

Screws 

Vis 

Schrauben 

Tornillos 

Bushings 

Doublure 

Futterung 

Forro 

TOO 

COOLING  SYS- 

SYSTEME   DE 

KUHL-APPA- 

SISTEMA  DE 

TEM' 

REFRIGERA- 

RATE 

REFRIGERA- 

TION 

CION 

Radiator 

Radiateur 

Ausstrahler 

Radiador 

Cooler 
Fan 

Refrigerant 
fiventail 

Kuhler 
Facher 

Refrigerador 
Abanico 

Belt 

Courroie 

Riemen 

Correa 

Pump 

Pompe 

Pumpe 

Bomba 

Hose 

Manches 

Schlauch 

Manguera 

Hose  clamps 

Crampons  a   man- 

Schlauch-Klam- 

Grapas   para   man- 

ches 

mer 

gueras 

RUNNING 

PARTIES    D'AU- 

AUTOMOBIL- 

PARTES  DE  AU- 

GEAR 

TOMOBILE 

TEILE 

TOMOVIL 

Frame 

Train 

Gestell 

Armazon 

Front   axle 

Essieu  de  devant 

Vorder-Achse 

Eje  delantero 

Rear  axle 

Essieu  posterieur 

Hinter-Achse 

Eje  posterior 

Differential 

Engrenage    diffe- 

Differential-Trieb- 

Engranaje  diferen- 

rentiel 

werk 

cial 

Wheels 

Roues 

Rader 

Ruedas 

Chains 

Chaines 

Ketten 

Cadenas 

Shaft 

Arbre 

Welle 

Arbol 

Cardan  joint 

Jointure  a  la  Car- 

Cardan-Gelenk 

Juntura  de  Cardan 

dan 

Gears 

Engrenages 

Triebwerk 

Engranaje 

Steering  wheel 

Roue   directrice 

Steuer-Rad 

Rueda   guiadora 

Steering  post 

Barre  directrice 

Steuer-Stange 

Poste-timon 

Springs 

Ressorts 

Federn 

M'uelles 

Spring  clips 
Spring  shackles 

Pinces  a  ressort 
Crampons  a   res- 

Feder-Klammern 
Feder-Kuppelun- 

Grapas  de  muelle 
Trabas  de  muelle 

sort 

gen 

Balls 

Boules 

Kugeln 

Bolas 

Cones 
Rollers 

Cones 
Rouleaux 

Kegel 
Walzen 

Conos 
Rodillos 

Brakes 

Freins 

Bremsen 

Frenos 

Brake  lining 

Doublure  de  frein 

Bremsen-Futte- 

Forro   de   freno 

Brake  drum 

Tambour  de  frein 

rung 
Bremsen-Trommel 

Tambor  de  freno 

Clutch 

Manchon   d'em- 

Kuppelung 

Embrague 

Clutch  pedal 
Clutch  lever 

brayage 
Pedal  a^embrayage 
Levier  a  embraya- 

Kuppelungs-Pedal 
Kuppelungs-Hebel 

Pedal  de  embrague 
Palanca  de  embra- 

Grease  cup 

ge 
Boite  a  graisse 

Schmier-Buchse 

Caja  de  sebo 

SUPPLIES 

ACCESSOIRES 

ZUBEHOR 

ACCESORIOS 

Gasoline 

Gazoline 

Gasolin 

Gasolina 

Cylinder  oil 

Huile  a  cylindre 

Zylinder-Oel 

Aceite   para    cilin- 
dros 

Machine  oil 

Huile  a  machine 

Maschinen-Oel 

Aceite  para  maqui- 

Calcium    carbide 
Candy  carbide 

Grease 

Carbure  de  cal- 
cium 
Carbure  de  candy 
Graisse 

Candy-Kohle 
Schmierfett 

nas 
Carburo  de  calcio 
Carburo   de   candy 
Grasa 

Water 

Eau 

Wasser 

Agua 

Kerosene 
Freezing  Solution 

Petrole 
Melange    rtfrig*- 

Petroleum 
Gefrier-Losung 

Petr61eo 
Soluci6n  para  con- 
gel  ar 

no 


EQUIPMENT 

EQUIPEMENT 

AUSRUSTUNG 

EQUIPOS 

Wrenches 

Clefs 

Schraubenschlus- 

Llaves 

sel 

Screwdriver 

Tournevis 

Schraubenzieher 

Destornillador 

Hammer 

Marteau 

Hammer 

Martillo 

Stilson  wrench 

Clef   a    molette  _a 

Stilson-Rohren- 

Llave  para  tuberia 

une     seule    ma- 

Schliissel 

choire  mobile 

Jack 

Cric 

Winde 

Cric 

Oil  can 

Burette  a  huile 

Oelkanne 

Aceitera 

Wire 

Fil  de  fer 

Draht 

Alambre 

Rivets 

Rivets 

Nieten 

Remaches 

File 

Lime 

Feile 

Lima 

Horn 

Corne 

Horn 

Cuerno 

Oil  lamps 

Lampes  a  huile 

Oellampen 

Lamparas  de  aceite 

Gas  lamps 
Gas  generator 

Lampes  a  gaz 
Generateur  de  gaz 

Gaslampen 
Gas-Erzeuger 

Lamparas  de  gas 
Generador  de  gas 

Odometer 

Odometre 

Odometer 

Odometro 

Speedometer 

Indicateur    de    vi- 

Schnelligkeitsanes- 

Indicador  de  velo- 

tesse 

ser 

cidad 

Gradometer 

Gradometre 

Gradometer 

Gradometro 

Rope 

Cordage 

Seil 

Cuerda 

Tire  pump 

Pompe  a  pneuma- 

Luftpumpe 

Bombas  para  neu- 

* 

tiques 

maticas 

Valve  plug 
wrench 

Clefs  pour  chevil- 
les  de  soupape 

Schlussel  fur  Ven- 
tilbolzen 

Llave  para  clavija 
de  valvula 

TIRE  REPAIR 

EQUIPEMENT 

UTENSILIEN 

AVIOS   PARA 

OUTFIT 

POUR  LA  RE- 

FUR 

REMENDAR 

PARATION  DE 

GUMMIRAD- 

NEUMATICOS 

PNEUMATI- 

REPARATUREN 

QUES 

Tires 

Pneumatiques 

Gummirader 

Neumaticas 

^Casing 

Revetement 

Verkleidung 

Estuche 

Inner  tube 

Tuyeau    interieur 

Innere  Rohre 

Tubo   interior 

Patching  rubber 

Caoutchouc    a    ra- 

Reparatur-Gummi 

Caucho  para  re- 

piecer 

mendar 

Patches 

Pieces  pour  rapie- 

Reparatur-Stucke 

Remiendos 

Cement 

cage 
Ciment 

Zement 

Cemento 

Tire  tape 

Ruban  pour  pneu- 

Gummirad-Band 

Cinta  para  neuma- 

matiques 

ticas 

Tire  manchon 

Manchon   a  pneu- 

Gummirad-Man- 

Manchon    de   neu- 

matiques 

chon 

matica 

Puncture 

Piqure 

Punktur 

Puntura 

Chalk 

Craie 

Kreide 

Greda 

Blow-out 

Appareil  a  purger 

Blase-Apparat 

Aparato  de  expul- 
si6n 

Vulcanize 

Vulcaniser 

Vulkanisieren 

Vulcanizar 

III 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

AUTOMOBILE   MATERIAL  AND   CON- 
STRUCTION. 

By  Jonathan  D.  Maxwell,  M.  E. 

There  is  no  subject  so  important  to  the  automobile 
as  that  of  the  material  of  which  it  is  made. 

The  growth  and  development  of  the  industry  has 
been  so  rapid  that  the  producers  of  the  raw  article 
have  been  taxed  to  their  limit  to  meet  the  demands. 
Therefore,  in  the  past  the  quality  of  the  material 
has  been  somewhat  neglected  and  has  not  been  im- 
proved as  much  as  it  should  have  been. 

In  some  instances,  manufacturers  of  automobiles 
have  considered  themselves  fortunate  to  get  material 
of  any  quality,  but  beginning  with  the  present  and 
in  future  these  conditions  will  change.  The  greatest 
revolution  of  the  automobile  in  trfe  next  decade  will 
be  in  the  material  of  which  it  is  made. 

It  has  been  said  that  we  cannot  produce  automobiles 
in  this  country  equal  to  those  that  come  from  abroad. 
This,  however,  is  not  a  fact.  The  formulaes  and  speci- 
fications as  well  as  methods  used  in  Europe  in  the  con- 
struction of  automobiles  are  no  secret  in  America  to 
either  the  producer  of  the  raw  material  or  of  the  fin- 
ished car. 

We  predict  that  within  the  next  ten  years  America 

112 


will  lead  the  world  in  the  production  of  motor  vehi- 
cles of  all  kinds  in  both  quality  and  quantity. 

The  fact  is  that  in  some  of  our  medium-priced  cars 
we  are  to-day  using  bronze,  steel  and  other  materials 
that  are  made  from  as  good,  if  not  quite  the  same, 
formulaes  as  are  used  in  Europe  on  some  of  the  most 
expensive  cars,  some  of  which  are  sold  quite  exten- 
sively in  America  for  seemingly  fabulous  prices. 

This  statement  can  be  verified  by  analysis.  Where 
America  excels  is  in  simplicity,  which  is  synonymous 
with  perfection.  American  manufacturers  in  their  pop- 
ular-priced as  well  as  some  of  their  higher-priced  cars 
have  never  been  copiers  of  the  foreigners,  but  have 
with  characteristic  independence  proceeded  to  build 
them  according  to  the  American  idea  of  the  way  an 
automobile  should  be  made. 

It  is  true  that  Europe  had  the  advantage  of  us  a 
few  short  years  ago  by  reason  of  their  earlier  start 
in  the  business,  but  we  accepted  their  challenge  and 
to-day  the  "made-in-America"  automobile  can  be  seen 
in  every  civilized  country  where  automobiles  can  be 
used.  It  has  been  truly  said  that  "the  sun  never  sets 
on  an  American  built  car." 

The  building  of  an  automobile  requires  patient 
thought  and  much  study.  The  designer  should  have 
placed  before  him,  in  such  manner  that  he  cannot 
overlook  them,  these  motives:  "Simplicity,  Strength 
and  Lightness." 

Simplicity  comes  first,  for  complication  results  in 

113 


the  mulitplication  of  parts,  with  consequent  likelihood 
of  trouble  and  heavy  cost  of  upkeep. 

Strength  must  be  uniform.  This  is  by  no  means 
an  easy  thing  to  get.  In  some  of  the  more  compli- 
cated cars  there  are  no  less  than  three  thousand  dif- 
ferent parts  made  of  various  kinds  of  material  entering 
into  their  construction.  Therefore  the  designer  must 
take  each  one  of  these  materials  and  study  it  for 
strength. 

He  cannot  always  confine  himself  to  such 
as  he  can  buy  in  the  open  market,  but  must  bring 
into  use  new  materials  made  from  special  formulaes, 
after  which  he  shapes  them  into  the  proper  forms,  to 
produce  the  greatest  amount  of  strength  and  rigidity. 

Each  and  every  part  of  an  automobile  from  the 
ground  up  should  be  designed  so  that  one  part  should 
be  no  weaker  than  another,  yet  every  part  must  be 
made  strong  enough  to  do  its  legitimate  work  with 
a  reasonable  factor  of  safety. 

While  the  designer  is  selecting  his  material  and 
studying  the  various  shapes  he  must  keep  before  him 
the  very  important  question  of  lightness.  To  ob- 
tain this  he  must  use  the  very  best  material  of  the  kind 
obtainable,  made  specially  for  the  purpose  for  which 
he  uses  it. 

Beginning  with  the  wheels,  an  Ai  grade  wheel 
should  be  made  from  a  selected  stock  of  second  growth 
hickory,  but  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  hickory  a 
number  of  manufacturers  make  every  second  or 

114 


third  spoke  of  second  growth  ash,  which  makes  a 
very  strong  wheel  and  seems  to  stand  the  strain  and 
wear  quite  as  well  as  the  all-hickory  wheel;  but  the 
manufacturer  who  insists  on  cheapening  his  product 
by  the  insertion  of  too  many  spokes  of  inferior 
wood  finds  that  it  results  in  the  spokes  loosening 
and  in  some  cases  giving  way  altogether,  with  some- 
times disastrous  results. 

There  has  never  been  anything  discovered  or  in- 
vented to  take  the  place  of  the  wood  spoke  wheel  of 
the  artillery  pattern.  There  have  been  wheels  made 
entirely  of  steel  of  various  kinds,  some  of  them  resem- 
bling the  wood  wheel  very  closely,  but  for  various  rea- 
sons, the  principal  one  of  which  is  the  cost  of  manu- 
facture, they  have  never  become  popular. 

The  wire  wheel  is  the  close  competitor  of  the  wood 
wheel  and  is  somewhat  lighter,  but  on  account  of 
the  great  difficulty  of  keeping  a  uniform  tension  on 
the  spokes  and  their  likelihood  to  rust,  due  to  the  im- 
possibility of  drying  the  spokes  after  washing,  or  run- 
ning in  the  rain,  it  has  not  met  with  a  great  deal  of 
favor. 

SPRINGS. 

The  best  springs  are  made  from  a  special  grade  of 
spring  steel.  The  better  the  steel  the  better  the 
spring,  although  the  quality  of  the  spring  does  not  de- 
pend wholly  on  the  quality  of  the  steel.  A  good  spring 
maker  will  make  a  better  spring  of  a  poorer  grade  of 


steel  than  a  poor  spring  maker  can  make  of  a  better 
grade  of  steel. 

There  are  no  templets  or  gauges  for  a  spring  maker 
to  go  by  when  he  is  shaping  the  different  leaves  int(< 
place.  He  measures  his  first  leaf  or  "plate"  as  he  calls 
it.  After  that  the  rest  of  the  work  is  done  with  his 
eye,  each  successive  leaf  being  fitted  to  the  other  in 
a  manner  that  allows  it  to  carry  its  own  proportion 
of  the  load. 

Many  a  spring  has  had  a  broken  leaf  because  the 
maker  did  not  get  it  fitted  properly,  and  not  because 
it  was  too  hard  or  the  quality  of  the  steel  too  poor. 

It  is  the  practice  of  some  repair  shops  when  a  spring 
has  a  broken  leaf  to  take  a  leaf  out  of  another  spring 
to  replace  it.  In  some  cases  that  kind  of  a  repair  may 
be  satisfactory,  but  it  will  often  happen  that  the  re- 
placed leaf  will  break  again  or  cause  the  spring  to 
break  in  some  other  place  because  it  does  not  fit  prop- 
erly. A  broken  spring  should  be  taken  to  a  spring 
maker  for  repairs  wherever  it  is  possible  to  do  so. 
AXLES. 

The  axles  for  automobiles  seem  to  be  a  question 
on  which  a  great  many  American  designers  as  well  as 
some  of  the  foreigners  hold  different  opinions  as  to 
shape  and  construction. 

In  this  country  a  year  or  two  ago  there  were  about 
an  equal  number  of  solid  axles  of  the  round  and 
square  cross  sections,  as  well  as  the  tubular  cross 
section,  but  about  that  time  there  was  an  axle  brought 

116 


out  in  Europe  with  an  "I"  section.  This  was  copied 
to  some  extent  in  this  country.  Any  of  these  de- 
signs if  made  of  the  proper  material  give  very  good 
results,  but  the  tabular  axle  seems  to  be  the  only 
one  of  them  that  is  its  own  guarantee  of  the  quality 
of  the  material  of  which  it  is  made. 

A  solid  axle  of  any  construction  may  conceal  flaws 
that  cannot  be  detected  by  any  one  until  it  lets  go 
and  breaks  with  its  consequent  results. 

This  is  not  so  with  an  axle  constructed  of  steel  tube. 
'  It   may  bend   if   subjected  to  undue   stress   but   it   will 
not  break,  as  there  can  be  no  concealed  flaws. 

A  seamless  steel  tube  cannot  be  made  of  anything 
but  the  very  finest  grade  of  steel  on  account  of  the  pro- 
cess of  drawing  which  it  has  to  go  through,  this  being 
the  only  kind  of  tubing  used  in  the  construction  of 
axles. 

There  are  not  many  people  who  know  how  seamless 
steel  tubing  is  made.  The  first  operation  is  to  heat 
a  large  billet  of  steel  which  is  placed  in  a  powerful 
machine  beween  two  rollers,  the  axes  of  which  are  lo- 
cated at  an  angle  to  each  other,  in  which  it  is  pierced 
lengthwise  through  the  center.  This  is  the  first  op- 
eration and  the  beginning  of  the  steel  tube. 

The  next  operation  is  to  reheat  and  draw  it  through 
a  die  which  reduces  the  size  and  increases  the  length. 
This  second  operation  is  repeated  until  the  tube  is 
sufficiently  reduced  for  the  final  operations  of  cold 
drawing. 

117 


The  cold  drawing  is  very  similar  to  the  previous 
operations  excepting  that  they  do  not  heat  the  tube 
again,  but  draw  it  through  the  dies  cold,  which  gives 
it  a  bright  polish  and  compresses  the  grain  of  the  steel 
and  adds  to  the  stiffness  quite  materially.  It  is  taken 
in  this  condition  direct  from  the  machine  and  used  for 
axle  stock.  Being  reheated  after  the  final  operation 
of  cold  drawing  anneals  and  softens  the  steel,  making 
it  unfit  for  axle  use. 

It  can  be  seen  that  if  any  flaws  existed  in  the  steel 
that  they  would  easily  be  detected  in  the  cold  draw- 
ing operation. 

BEARINGS. 

There  are  about  as  many  different  kinds  of  bearings 
used  in  automobiles  as  there  are  different  makers. 
Some  makers  are  using  a  perfectly  plain  bearing 
throughout  their  cars,  while  others  stick  to  the  ball 
type,  but  the  majority  have  gone  to  the  roller  bearings 
of  various  kinds. 

Roller  bearings  for  rear  axles  seem  to  have  taken  the 
lead  and  are  giving  the  best  satisfaction,  while  for 
front  wheels  there  have  been  various  kinds  of  roller 
bearings  tried  but  the  ball  type  seems  to  still  hold  a 
good  place. 

There  have  been  used,  with  varying  success,  in  a  few 
cars,  ball  bearings  on  the  crank  shaft  main  bearings, 
and  in  some  cases  they  have  been  used  on  the  con- 
necting rods,  but  their  success  has  been  a  question 
which  is  still  open  and  in  doubt. 

118 


Some  designers  have  tried  roller  bearings  on  crar 
shaft  main  bearings  but  their  use  has  not  proved 
success.  Therefore  for  this  purpose  some  of  our  be 
designers  are  using  a  special  steel  crank  shaft  wil 
a  hard  phosphor  bronze  bearing  or  a  good  grade  « 
Babbit  metal. 

In  transmission  gears  ball  and  roller  bearings  a 
pretty  generally  used  with  the  roller  bearings  gainir 
in  favor  very  rapidly,  principally  on  account  of  the 
flexibility,  and  their  freedom  from  breaking  and  lik 
lihood  to  give  down  under  sudden  shocks  or  hea^ 
loads. 

FRAMES 

Frames  have  been  made  in  a  great  mam  differei 
ways.  In  the  earlier  construction  it  was  thought  ne< 
essary  to  use  some  equalizing  device  to  insure  fle: 
ibility  to  compensate  for  the  unevenness  of  the  roa< 
but  this  idea,  has  long  since  been  proved  unnecessar; 


although  automobiles  are  being  used  to-day  over  roa 
and  under  conditions  of  which  no  one  ever  dreame 
in  the  beginning. 

119 


The  accepted  design  of  frame  at  the  present  is  that 
of  the  pressed  steel  channel,  made  full  width  in  the 
middle  and  tapering  toward  the  ends,  although  there 
are  some  makers  that  still  adhere  to  the  old  style  con- 
struction— that  of  the  angle  steel  as  well  as  the  steel 
tube  or  a  combination  of  wood  and  iron. 

The  angle  steel  and  the  steel  tube  frames  have  a 
disadvantage  because  it  is  impossible  to  reinforce  or 
strengthen  them  in  the  middle  where  the  greater  part 
of  the  load  comes  without  putting  truss  rods  under- 
neath. This  it  is  not  desirable  to  do  on  account  of  their 
appearance  and  also  the  likelihood  of  their  coming 
loose  and  rattling. 

The  combination  wood  and  metal  frame  is  not  sub- 
ject to  the  same  objections  as  the  angle  steel  and  tubu- 
lar, but  it  has  no  advantage  over  the  pressed  steel 
frame  and  is  somewhat  heavier  and  not  so  strong  when 
considered  weight  for  weight. 

The  pressed  steel  frames  give  a  better  result  when 
not  used  in  connection  with  what  is  known  as  a  "sub- 
frame."  This  sub-frame  is  usually  built  somewhat 
lower  and  is  connected  to  the  main  frame  by  means  of 
arched  cross  members,  and  it  is  designed  to  receive 
the  motor  and  transmission.  This  construction  has  a 
tendency  to  stiffen  the  main  frame  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  has  been  known  to  break  when  used  on  very 
rough  roads. 

Owing  to  the  higher  rate  of  speed  and  rough  usage 
that  users  of  automobiles  are  pleased  to  give  them, 

I2O 


flexibility  is  a  very  important  question  in  frame  con- 
struction. For  that  reason  some  makers  use  a  frame 
consisting  of  two  pressed  steel  side  channels  connect- 
ed together  by  three  or  four  cross  members,  suitably 
located. . 

The  motor  and  transmission  are  combined  into  a 
single  unit,  which  is  mounted  or  suspended  to  or  on 
the  frame  at  no  more  than  three  points,  thus  involving 
the  principle  of  a  three-legged  stool. 


When  the  motor  is  supported  in  this  manner,  should 
any  undue  strain  be  applied  to  the  frame  at  any  point 
sufficient  to  strain  it  to  the  full  limit  of  its  flexibility, 
it  cannot  disturb  the  alignment  of  the  motor  and 
transmission  gearing,  and  thereby  cause  damage  or  un- 
due wear. 

MOTORS. 

In  the  short  space  of  time  since  the  advent  of  the  use 
of  the  gasoline  or  hydro-carbon  engine  for  automobile 
use,  there  has  been  almost  every  conceivable  design 
brought  out.  There  was  the  one  cylinder,  the  two 
cylinder,  the  three  cylinder,  the  four  cylinder,  the  six 
cylinder  and  a  few  eight  cylinders. 

121 


There  has  been  the  horizontal  cylinder,  the  vertical 
cylinder  above  the  crank,  the  vertical  cylinder  below 
the  crank,  cylinders  located  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees 
and  cylinders  located  in  a  number  of  other  positions, 
but  it  is  our  intention  to  mention  only  two  prevailing 
types  of  motors,  that  of  the  vertical  cylinders  above 
the  crank  and  the  horizontal  cylinders. 

The  single  cylinder  motor  of  either  the  vertical  or 
horizontal  type  is  evidently  a  thing  of  the  past,  (ex- 
cept in  the  very  low-priced  cars,)  on  account  of  the 
impossibility  of  balancing  the  reciprocating  parts.  In 
fact,  its  popularity  is  dying  very  fast. 

The  multiple  cylinder  motor  is  not  a  new  invention 
for  either  motor  car  use  or  stationary  use.  At  the 
first  automobile  show  ever  held  in  America,  which  was 
at  Chicago  in  1895,  there  were  several  different  models 
of  motors  on  exhibition,  but  the  one  which  seemed  to 
attract  the  most  attention  was  a  two-cylinder  opposed. 
This  motor  was  awarded  a  special  cash  prize  for  its 
perfect  balance  and  smooth  running.  The  other  mul- 
tiple cylinder  motors  consisted  of  the  twin  type  and 
the  three  and  four  cylinder  type. 

The  merits  of  the  three  and  four  cylinder  did  not 
seem  to  be  recognized  at  that  time,  for  it  was  not  fol- 
lowed up  to  any  great  extent  for  several  years,  but  the 
two  cylinder  opposed  has  been  used  extensively  ever 
since. 

It  was  not  until  they  began  to  build  motors  of  very 
high  power  that  the  three  and  four  cylinder  types 
came  into  use.  The  three  cylinders  did  not  seem  to 

122 


last  very  long.  They  gave  way  and  left  the  field  to 
the  two  cylinder  opposed  and  the  four  cylinder  verti- 
cal, with  a  few  six  cylinders  trying  to  find  a  place. 

All  three  of  the  last  mentioned  styles  of  motors  seem 
to  have  a  place  in  motor  car  construction  that  they 
are  likely  to  hold  for  some  time,  unless  some  revolu- 
tionizing invention  or  discovery  is  made  to  take  their 
place. 

It  has  been  proved  by  long  experience,  since  the 
adoption  of  the  universal  method  of  placing  the  mo- 
tor forward  of  the  dash  under  the  bonnet,  that  the  two 
cylinder  opposed  motor  has  many  advantages  over 
any  other  style,  when  made  in  units  not  to  exceed 
8-10  HP  cylinders  each.  Above  this  power  there 
should  be  more  than  two  cylinders. 

It  is  an  admitted  fact  that  in  the  multiple  cylinders 
there  is  a  multiplication  of  all  the  little  troubles  that 
are  incident  to  the  gasoline  motors,  such  as  connec- 
tions to  spark  plugs,  oil  pipes,  valves,  springs,  etc. 
Therefore  it  would  seem  advisable  to  limit  cylinders 
to  the  smallest  possible  number. 

As  the  majority  of  cars  manufactured  and  sold  in 
this  country  are  of  the  two  cylinder  type,  this  is  the 
one  we  will  dwell  upon. 

First,  for  the  purpose  of  balancing  the  motor,  the 
cranks  are  placed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  shaft  or 
180  degrees  apart.  It  will  be  seen  by  this  that  both 
pistons  will  be  traveling  in  opposite  directions  at  the 
same  time.  They  will  also  both  stop  and  start  at  the 
same  time  at  both  ends  of  each  stroke.  Thus  it  will  be 

123 


seen  that  one  piston  is  a  perfect  counter-balance  ior 
the  other  at  all  times. 

Another  advantage  of  this  form  of  motor  is  found 
in  the  oiling  system.  On  account  of  the  pistons  both 
traveling  on  the  outward  stroke  and  the  inward  stroke 
at  the  same  time,  there  is  alternately  a  vacuum  and 
compression  in  the  crank  chamber.  By  reason  of 
this  it  is  possible  to  use  with  perfect  success  the  com- 
pression system  of  oiling — the  motor  acting  as  a  per- 
fect pump  of  unlimited  capacity,  forcing  a  pressure 
on  to  the  top  of  the  oil  as  well  as  sucking  it  out 
through  the  various  distributing  pipes. 

In  addition  to  this,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  motor 
is  of  the  horizontal  type,  oil  can  be  fed  to  the  motor  in 
such  manner  that  it  will  drop  on  to  the  connecting 
rods.  It  will  thereby  be  distributed  through  the  ac- 
tion of  these  rods  to  both  the  crank  shaft  and  the 
piston  wrist  pins.  There  it  will  be  thrown  off  in  the 
form  of  a  vapor  or  mist  which  will  lubricate  the  cylin- 
ders as  well  as  all  the  other  bearings  inside  the  motor. 

Another  feature  of  the  horizontal  opposed  motor 
which  is  by  no  means  the  least  of  its  many  advantages 
is  the  facility  with  which  it  is  adapted  to  the  thermo- 
siphon  system  of  cooling.  By  hanging  the  motor  well 
down  in  the  frame  with  the  upper  side  of  the  cylinder 
below  the  bottom1  of  the  radiator,  the  heated  water  is 
carried  to  the  bottom  of  the  cooler  and  is  compelled 
to  flow  upward  through  the  radiator  before  it  can 
reach  the  over-flow  or  vent.  It  can  be  seen  that  if  the 
radiating  surface  be  sufficiently  large  the  water  will 

124 


be  cooled,  before  it  reaches  the  top  and  will  therefore 
find  its  way  to  the  bottom  again.  There  it  will  be  con- 
ducted by  gravity  through  separate  tubes  to  the  lower 
side  of  the  cylinders,  there  to  replace  the  warm  water 
which  is  continually  flowing  out  at  the  top. 

It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  two-cylinder  op- 
posed type  of  motor,  which  can  utilize  these  cardinal 
points,  is  far  superior  to  the  four  or  six-cylinder  con- 
struction, particularly  for  twenty  or  less  horse-power. 


125 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE  COOLING  OF  EXPLOSIVE  MOTORS. 
By  Frank  Briscoe. 

The  heat  generated  by  the  explosions  in  gas  engine 
cylinders  becomes  so  great  that,  unless  means  are 
found  for  dissipating  it,  various  disorders  arise,  such  as 
premature  explosions,  irregularities  of  the  valves,  or 
finally  the  sticking  of  the  piston  due  to  excessive  ex- 
pansion. According  to  leading  designers  the  most  ef- 
ficient temperature  at  which  a  gas  engine  should  run  is 
210°  or  just  below  boiling  point. 

There  are  two  means  of  cooling  motors,  air-cooling 
and  water  cooling. 

Air  cooling  has  been  tried  in  America  with  some 
success  though  French  and  other  foreign  designers 
have  almost  entirely  abandoned  it  as  not  possessing 
enough  advantages  to  compensate  for  its  defects.  It 
is  accomplished  by  attaching  flanges,  pins  or  other 
devices  to  the  cylinder,  thereby  increasing  the  area  of 
cooling  surface,  and  then  directing  a  strong  blast  of  air 
across  them.  The  lubricating  oil  also  plays  some  part 
in  air-cooled  motors  as  its  vaporization  and  discharge 
through  the  muffler  dissipates  considerable  heat. 

Water  cooling  is  accomplished  by  encircling  all  or 
part  of  the  cylinder  and  valves  with  a  water  jacket 
which  is  connected  by  tubes  with  a  cooler  or  radiator, 

126 


the  hot  water  passing  through  the  radiator  and  re- 
turning cooled  to  the  water  jacket.  As  the  explosion 
chamber  and  valves  require  cooling  much  more  than 
the  rest  of  the  cylinder,  the  ideal  construction  is  to 
water  jacket  only  a  section  of  the  cylinder,  the  head 
and  the  valves,  and  provide  the  other  parts  with  air 
cooling  devices. 

Radiators  are  of  two  general  types,  tubular  and 
honeycomb.  Both  have  tubes  but  in  the  former  the 
water  passes  through  the  tubes  while  in  the  honey- 
comb the  air  passes  through  the  tubes. 

TUBULAR  RADIATORS.  In  this  type  the  tubes 
are  generally  round,  fitted  together  in  a  coil  so  that 
the  water  passes 
through  the  en- 
tire length  of  tub- 
ing, and  these  are 
provided  with 
discs  or  fins  to  in- 
crease the  cooling  surface.  The  material,  both  of  fins 
and  tubes,  is  generally  copper. 

In  the  higher  priced  cars,  the  tubes  are  often  flat- 
tened. This  form,  while  more  expensive  than  the 
round  tube,  is  more  efficient  for  the  same  length  of 
tubing  and  lends  itself  to  greater  beauty  of  design. 
Flat  tube  radiators  generally  pass  the  water  through 
each  entire  bank  of  tubes  at  the  same  time  and  have 
fins  which  are  continuous  from  front  to  back  over  each 
entire  bank  of  tubes. 

127 


In  few  tubular  radiators  are  the  banks  of  tubes  more 
than  three  deep  from  front  to  back  as  more  than  three 
are  inefficient.  The  reason  is  that  the  air  absorbs  heat 
as  it  passes  each  tube  or  fin  so  that  the  further  it 
goes  back  the  less  capacity  it  has  to  absorb  heat  from 
the  rear  tubes. 

Radiators  are  also  made  with  vertical  tubes  run- 
ning from  a  top  tank  into  a  bottom  tank.  In  certain 
cases  such  radiators  are  quite  efficient  and  may  some- 
times be  used  without  a  pump. 

Tubes  are  sometimes  used  without  fins  but  in  this 
case  are  always  greatly  flattened.  One  style  has  them 
vertical  but  corrugated,  having  almost  a  honeycomb 
appearance.  Another  has  lateral  and  straight  flat 
tubes. 

Fins  are  often  made  of  iron  or  tin  for  economy  as 
the  decrease  in  cost  of  the  material  makes  up  for  the 
additional  quantity  needed. 

One  form  of  radiator,  called  the  Staggered  Gang  Fin 
type  has  the  fins  so  shaped  that  while  continuous  from 
front  to  back  of  the  radiator  and  presenting  a  straight 
front  and  back,  each  tube  has  a  direct  front  exposure 
to  the  air,  instead  of  being  placed  one  directly  behind 
the  other  as  is  usual  with  tubular  radiators. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  different  and  often  con- 
tradictory conditions  in  radiators.  A  satisfactory  re- 
sult is  of  necessity  a  compromise.  Radiators  must 
cool,  must  be  as  economical  as  possible,  look  as  well  as 
possible,  last  as  long  as  possible,  and  be  as  light  as 

128 


possible.  Excepting  efficiency,  most  of  these  points 
are  problems  for  the  manufacturer  only  and  do  not 
concern  us  here. 

Efficiency  depends  primarily  on  the  amount  of 
heated  air  surface  and  secondarily  on  the  material  and 
form  of  this  surface. 

Copper  is  the  best  material  on  account  of  its  great 
power  to  conduct  heat,  being  six  times  as  efficient  as 
iron  and  three  times  as  efficient  as  brass.  But  copper 
while  a  good  conductor  is  one  of  the  poorest  metals 
as  a  radiator  of  heat  being  only  one  twenty-fourth  as 
efficient  in  radiation  as  lamp  black. 

For  this  reason  copper  tubes  and  fins  are  used  to 
conduct  the  heat  to  the  surface  but  in  order  to  expel 
the  heat  into  the  air  they  are  coated  with  lamp  black 
or  some  similar  paint.  Leaving  a  radiator  unpainted, 
or  painting  it  with  bronze  or  aluminum  or  any  shining 
material,  decreases  its  efficiency. 

Heat  is  similar  in  many  of  its  phenomena  to  elec- 
tricity. For  instance,  it  tends  to  remain  in  the  element 
it  is  in  and  with  difficulty  jumps  an  air  gap.  When 
the  fins  are  put  on  the  tubes,  no  matter  how  tight, 
there  is  an  air  space  between.  Therefore,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  solder  them  to  the  tubes  in  order  to  get  metal- 
lic continuity.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  aluminum  is 
impracticable  for  fins,  though  an  excellent  conductor 
of  heat. 

Heat  is  dissipated  from  a  point,  edge,  or  projection 
more  readily  than  from  a  smooth  surface.  Therefore, 

129 


fins  are  made  with  projections  or  perforations,  or  both. 

In  considering  the  fins  it  must  be  remembered  that 

they  give   direct  radiation   only,  not  being  in   direct 


contact  with  the  original  source  of  heat.  On  the  other 
hand  both  sides  of  the  fin  are  exposed  to  the  air  while 
in  the  case  of  the  tubing  only  one  side  is  exposed  to 
the  air. 

The  value  of  the  continuous  fin  from  front  to  rear 
is  that  it  furnishes  a  continuous  medium  for  the  heat 


w)i«'ch    finis 


\n 


130 


from  the  rear,  or  hottest  part,  to  travel  to  the  front, 
or  coldest  part. 

One  form  of  fin,  first  used,  it  seems,  in  Germany,  and 
lately  introduced  into  this  country,  is  the  so-called 
Spiral  Ribbon  fin.  This  consists  of  a  corrugated  cop- 
per ribbon  wound  edgewise  and  spirally  on  a  tube,  the 
corrugation  on  the  inner  edge  being  increased  and 
being  stretched  out  nearly  straight  on  the  outer  edge 
to  make  it  rest  edgewise  on  the  tube.  This  type  is 
economical,  but  is  the  least  efficient  form  of  fin  for 
three  reasons.  First  the  copper  in  the  ribbon  must 
for  mechanical  reasons  be  so  light  that  it  has  but 
slight  conducting  power.  Secondly,  the  ribbon  being 
continuous  along  the  entire  length  of  one  tube,  the  heat 
tends  to  remain  in  and  travel  along  the  ribbon  as  elec- 
tricity would  cling  to  a  wire.  Thirdly,  the  deep  corru- 
gations at  the  base  or  hottest  part  of  the  ribbon  form 
snug  little  air  pockets  in  which  the  heated  air  nestles, 
to  be  withdrawn  only  by  suction. 

In  all  tubular  radiators  the  water  circulation  is  of 
great  importance.  A  tank  is  necessary  to  act  as  a  sort 
of  stand  pipe,  or  reserve,  to  take  up  evaporation.  A 
pump  is  necessary  except  in  some  vertical  tube  arrange- 
ments. The  pump  must  always  force  the  cold  water 
into  the  motor  and  never  pump  the  hot  water  into 
the  radiator  as  in  the  latter  case  it  will  at  times  have 
to  pump  steam,  which  is  impossible.  Attention  must 
be  paid  to  possible  air,  or  steam  pockets,  in  the  radiator, 
or  connections.  These  often  cause  serious  annoyance 


in  tubular  radiators.  The  connecting  pipes  between 
radiator  and  water  jacket  must  be  ample  in  size  else 
much  of  the  efficiency  of  the  radiator  is  choked ;  circu- 
lation is  generally  from  top  to  bottom  of  radiator,  but 
it  may  just  as  well  be  the  other  way,  and  in  fact,  is 
often  down  the  back  row  of  tubes,  up  the  middle  and 
down  the  front,  or  vice  versa. 

HONEYCOMB  RADIATORS.  These  were  orig- 
inated in  Europe  and  most  foreign  designs  are  copies 
and  improvements  of  this  type.  In  this  type  a  numbei 
of  short  tubes  with  ends  expanded  are  fitted  together 
and  the  edges  joined  with  solder. 

Sometimes  the  body  of  the  tube  is  shrunk  by  cor- 
rugation, or  otherwise,  instead  of  expanding  the  ends, 
or  a  hex  end  is  swedged  on  a  round  tube.  Any  of 
these  methods  is  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  very 
thin  space  between  the  assembled  tubes  through  which 
the  water  trickles.  It  is  obvious  that  there  is  a  lat- 
eral as  well  as  vertical  circulation  possible  and  it  is  this 
feature  wherein  the  great  value  of  the  honeycomb  lies. 
Thus  thermal  circulation  is  always  going  on  inside  the 
radiator  irrespective  of  the  action  of  the  pump,  the 
coldest  water  is  always  delivered  to  the  outlet,  and 
the  entire  radiator  is  made  to  do  its  work  uniformly  in 
every  part. 

The  weakness  of  the  foreign  types  for  American  use, 
beside  their  expense,  is  their  great  delicacy  and  the 
extreme  thinness  (about  1-64  inch)  of  the  water  space, 

132 


which   is   liable   to  become   clogged   with   lime   from 
the  water. 

An  American  honeycomb  has"  been  invented  which 
makes  use  of  the  idea  but  applies  it  differently.  In  the 
American  type  of  honeycomb,  instead  of  sawing  off 
single  short  pieces  ~ 

of  drawn  tubing 
which  in  the  light 
gauges  is  treach- 
erous, a  multiple 
tube  is  formed  out 
of  sheet  copper, 
seamed  together 
and  stamped  in- 
to the  shape  of 
three  or  more 
square  tubes  with 
ends  expanded. 
These  multiple 
tubes  are  then  joined  as  in  the  foreign  type,  the  ex- 
panded ends  holding  the  sides  apart  so  as  to  form  a 
water  passage  of  about  1-16  inch.  This  is  large  enough 
to  prevent  clogging  and  small  enough  to  insure  effi- 
cient cooling.  The  design  is  of  greater  strength  as 
the  joined  edges  being  in  groups  of  three  have  three 
times  the  bearing  surface,  for,  one  soldered  joint  an 
inch  long  is  in  less  danger  of  breaking  than  three  such 
joints  each  a  third  of  an  inch  long.  The  material  used 
is  lighter  thus  saving  both  weight  and  cost.  The  cor- 

133 


rugations  in  the  water  walls  of  the  tubes  allow  for 
enough  expansion  so  that  bursting  through  freezing 
is  rare.  Lateral  circulation  is  allowed  every  three 
holes. 

This  type  lends  itself  readily  to  thermo-siphon  cir- 
culation, a  pump  being  unnecessary  when  the  system 
is  arranged  with  that  end  in  view.  As  there  is  freedom 
of  movement  in  every  direction,  the  coldest  water  al- 
ways finds  the  bottom,  thence  goes  into  the  bottom 
of  the  cylinder  water  jacket.  Being  there  heated  it 
rises,  finally  passing  out  the  top  of  the  water  jacket 
into  the  radiator,  where  the  thermal  currents  carry  it 
first  to  the  top,  then,  as  it  cools  to  the  bottom  of  the 
radiator  again. 

This  American 
honeycomb  is 
probably,  taking 
into  consideration 
all  requirements 
of  efficiency,  dura- 
bility, cost,  ap- 
pearance  and 
weight,  the  most 
satisfactory  type 
yet  developed. 

While  freak  rad- 
iators of  many 
kinds  designed 

usually  by  persons 
ignorant       of     the 

134 


complex  conditions,  ate  continually  making  their  ap- 
pearance, the  real  development  is  along  the  lines  above 
indicated.  A  thousand  and  one  little  technical  points 
are  yet  undetermined,  but  are  being  gradually  worked 
out  so  that  each  season  sees  a  substantial  improvement 
over  the  preceding  one. 


1.35 


CHAPTER  XX. 

TIRES  AND  TIRE  CONSTRUCTION. 
By  Horace  De  Lisser. 

Pneumatic  tires  should  be  considered  in  the  same 
relative  position  to  an  automobile  as  a  foundation  is 
to  a  house.  As  you  would  never  place  a  fine  house 
on  a  poor  foundation,  therefore  you  should  never  place 
a  poor  tire  on  a  good  automobile. 

The  best  tires  are  those  constructed  solely  of  rubber 
and  fabric.  Avoid  all  such  combinations  as  leather, 
metal  plates,  and  the  like,  for  a  thorough  vulcanization 
of  the  rubber  with  any  other  substance  than  cloth  is 
impossible,  and  unless  there  is  a  complete  adhesion 
between  the  rubber  and  the  other  substance,  regardless 
of  what  it  may  be,  the  weaker  of  the  two  must  neces- 
sarily give  way  to  the  stronger. 

The  two  vital  points  in  tire  construction  are  Re- 
siliency and  Durability,  after  which  common  sense 
must  be  employed  if  the  pneumatic  tire  is  to  be  en- 
joyed. 

The  value  of  the  pneumatic  tire  is  only  in  its  pos- 
session of  a  greater  degree  of  resiliency  than  is  found 
in  the  use  of  solid  rubber  tires,  and  comfort  is  the 
prime  quality  desired. 

A  method  of  construction  must  be  employed  which 
will  preserve  the  resiliency  and  at  the  same  time  offer 

136 


the  greatest  degree  of  resistance  to  obstacles  common- 
ly encountered,  and  this  can  be  obtained  only  by  the 
proper  vulcanization  of  the  very  best  grade  of  rubber, 
and  the  toughest  and  strongest  fibre  cotton,  known  as 
Sea  Island. 

It  is  vitally  important  that  the  fabric  retain  a  com- 
plete hold  on  the  rubber  and  that  there  be  no  friction 
or  rubbing  between  the  plies  of  cloth  and  the  rubber 
covering;  otherwise,  the  incessant  pounding  which  a 
tire  receives  will  have  a  tendency  to  separate  the  plies 
or  .layers,  and,  as  the  strength  of  a  tire  lies  solely  in 
the  fabric,  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  when  the  plies 
separate  the  tire  weakens. 

Friction  heat,  caused  by  the  enormous  speed  of  the 
tire  over  the  ground,  is  another  vital  consideration,  for 
as  a  tire  is  put  together  by  heat,  heat  will  naturally 
separate  the  layers,  and  this  subject  is  an  all  important 
study  on  the  part  of  tire  manufacturers. 

This  is  overcome  by  the  use  of  pure,  soft,  Para 
rubber  between  the  tread  and  the  fabric,  thus  form- 
ing a  cushion  which  not  only  increases  the  resiliency 
but  prevents  internal  friction. 

All  unnecessary  strain  on  the  sides  or  wall  of  a  tire 
should  be  eliminated  if  a  perfect  tire  is  to  be  con- 
structed. This  can  be  secured  only  by  building  the 
tire  circular  in  form,  whether  inflated  or  deflated.  If 
the  tire  is  correctly  shaped  and  not  forced  to  assume 
a  rounded  form  when  carrying  weight,  then  there  will 
be  no  unequal  strain  on  any  part,  internal  or  external. 

Durability — The  element  of  durability  is  necessarily 
i37 


dependent  upon  a  proper  construction  of  the  tire  as 
a  whole.  The  old  adage  of  "a  chain  being  only  as 
strong  as  its  weakest  link,"  might  be  paraphrased  in 
connection  with  a  tire  too.  "a  tire  is  only  as  strong  as 
its  weakest  point." 

A  thorough  coating  of  pure  Para  rubber  cement;  a 
cushion  of  the  same  quality  rubber  between  each  ply 
of  fabric,  and  a  similar  cushion  between  the  outer  tread 
and  the  top  layer,  all  vulcanized  into  practically  one 
piece,  will  prevent  separation,  or  internal  friction,  and 
necessarily  distribute  equal  strength  to  all  points. 

The  bead  or  clinch  of  a  tire  should  be  so  constructed 
as  to  be  elongated  at  the  toe  and  stiffened  in  the  center, 
for  it  will  then  seat  itself  firmly  and  with  the  air  pres- 
sure on  the  inner  tube  holding  it  in  its  proper  place, 
it  will  be  immovable,  thus  removing  the  source  of 
rim  cutting. 

Common  sense  plays  a  most  conspicuous  part  in  the 
full  enjoyment  of  a  pneumatic  tire.  Always  bear  in 
mind  that  a  tire  is  constructed  only  with  rubber  and 
fabric  and  put  together  with  heat. 

Avoid  all  substances  known  to  be  detrimental  to 
rubber,  and  above  all  never  rest  your  tire  in  oil,  or 
allow  oil  or  paint  to  touch  it. 

Keep  the  casing  thoroughly  soap-stoned,  as  the  fric- 
tion heat,  caused  by  contact  with  the  ground,  will 
eventually  cause  an  adhesion  to  the  inner  tube. 

When  your  car  is  out  of  commission,  either  tempor- 
arily or  permanently,  always  relieve  the  strain  on  your 
tires  by  jacking  up  the  wheels. 

138 


CHAPTER  XXL 

THE    IMPORTANCE    QF    OILING    AN 
AUTOMOBILE. 

By  C.  W.  Kelsey. 

The  question  is  often  asked,  "What  is  the  life  of  an 
automobile?"  This  is  easily  answered.  It  depends 
upon  two  things ;  first,  the  way  the  car  is  handled,  and 
second,  the  amount  of  oil  it  receives.  With  proper  at- 
tention in  both  of  these  respects  an  automobile  should 
last  from  five  to  ten  years,  depending  upon  the  grade 
of  car. 

The  handling  of  a  car  is  a  personal  equation  and  no 
fixed  rules  can  be  given.  The  oiling,  however,  im- 
portant as  it  is,  is  a  very  easy  matter.  Simply  see 
that  all  the  wearing  surfaces  get  lots  of  oil  all  the  time. 

To  properly  appreciate  the  importance  of  oiling  it 
may  be  well  to  see  just  what  its  functions  are  and  how 
it  performs  them.  If  you  look  at  oil  through  a  very 
powerful  microscope  you  will  see  that  it  is  composed 
of  thousands  of  globules,  each  one  shaped  like  a  balL 
A  properly  oiled  bearing  has  distributed  all  over  its  rub- 
bing surfaces  these  small  globules,  which  act  exactly 
as  if  they  were  steel  balls,  preventing  the  two  surfaces 
themselves  from  touching  each  other.  The  moment 
there  is  no  oil  there  and  the  two  surfaces  come  in  con- 
tact they  start. to  cut  and  it  takes  but  a  very  short  time 
for  an  expensive  bearing  to  be  destroyed. 


The  oil  itself  will  wear  out ;  that  is  to  say,  the  glob- 
ules will  break  and  the  oil  will  thus  lose  its  lubricating 
properties.  Therefore  new  oil  must  be  added  constant- 

iy. 

As  proper  oiling  is  such  a  tremendous  factor  in  the 
successful  performance  of  a  car,  it  is  well  to  see  that 
your  automobile  is  equipped  with  as  nearly  an  auto- 
matic system  of  oiling  as  is  possible  and  practical. 

The  pump  oiler  which  has  to  be  handled  every  few 
miles  by  the  operator  is  likely  to  be  forgotten.  This 
naturally  would  have  disastrous  results.  There  are 
several  very  good  positive  oiling  systems  ;  some  of  these 
are  mechanical  pumps  which  start  when  the  engine 
starts  and  pump  just  the  proper  amount  of  oil  to  every 
part  where  oil  is  required,  stopping  when  the  motor 
stops. 

Another  and  more  simple  arrangement  which  is  well 
adapted  to  double  opposed  motors  is  to  use  the  alter- 
nate compression  and  vacuum  of  the  crank  case,  the 
pressure  and  vacuum  starting  when  the  motor  starts 
and  falling  when  the  motor  stops.  In  this  method  a 
pipe  having  a  simple  ball  check  runs  from  the  crank 
case  to  the  oil  reservoir.  Every  time  there  is  a  com- 
pression in  the  crank  case,  which  occurs  as  the  pistons 
approach  each  other,  there  is  a  pressure  put  on  the  oil" 
in  the  reservoir.  This  forces  the  oil  to  sight  feeds, 
which  should  be  situated  on  the  dash  in  easy  sight  of 
the  operator,  and  is  thence  distributed  to  the  various 
bearings.  As  the  oil  leaves  the  sight  feeds  it  is  sucked 

140 


to  the  piston  and  the  engine  bearings  by  the  vacuum 
caused  by  the  pistons  receding  from  each  other. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  procuring  the  very 
best  oil.  It  is  poor  economy  to  use  an  inferior  grade, 
it  does  not  follow  that  because  you  are  paying  a  big 
price  for  oil  you  are  getting  the  best.  There  is  prob- 
ably more  fraud  practised  in  the  oil  business  than  in 
any  other  pursuit  accessory  to  automobiling. 

The  writer  has  had  oil  offered  to  him  as  the  very 
best  at  8oc  a  gallon  and  has  been  able  to  get  identically 
the  same  thing  in  the  open  market  for  loc  a  gallon. 

The  best  oil  for  cylinder  use  is  one  having  a  very 
high  fire  test  and  a  very  low  cold  test,  and  which  is 
rather  thin.  This  same  oil  can  be  used  for  most 
bearings. 

Gears  should  be  run  in  a  very  heavy  oil  or  a  good 
quality  of  grease.  The  manufacturers  of  machines, 
however,  always  give  instructions  as  to  just  what  oil 
to  use  in  each  particular  place  where  lubrication  is 
necessary. 

Remember  that  a  gallon  too  much  oil  can  do  no 
damage  o'ther  than  to  soot  up  the  spark  plugs,  which 
are  cleaned  in  a  very  few  minutes.  A  drop  too  little 
oil,  on  the  other  hand,  may  destroy  the  whole  power 
plant  of  the  machine. 


141 


RETURN     CIRCULATION  DEPARTMENT 
TO—*     202  Main  Library 

LOAN  PERIOD  1 
HOME  USE 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

ALL  BOOKS  AAAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

1  -month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling  642-3405 

6-month  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing  books  to  Circulation 

Desk 

Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  due  date 


DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 

Ftfr  JJQ  Tj/y 

REC.  CIR.    FTB  2  1 

979 

